khushikhanera

Before the invention of money, people used the barter system to exchange goods and services. For example, crops or beads were traded for other items. The barter system was the earliest form of trade, using items like:

• Cowrie shells
• Salt
• Cloth
• Cattle

However, this system was inefficient. 

Barter System

• Money evolved as a common tool that everyone accepts for buying or selling goods and services, making trade much easier. 
• Today, we use coins, notes, and digital methods (like mobile payments) to conduct transactions. 
• John Maynard Keynes, a renowned economist, stated that money connects the present to the future by helping us save and spend later.

Why Do We Need Money?

The barter system had many problems, making money necessary. For Example: A farmer with an ox needs shoes, a sweater, and medicines but faces these challenges:

• Double coincidence of wants: The farmer must find someone who wants an ox and offers exactly what he needs (shoes, sweater, medicines). This is rare.
• Common standard measure of value: It’s hard to decide how much an ox is worth compared to shoes or medicines, as there’s no agreed value.
• Divisibility: An ox cannot be split into parts for smaller trades, like for a sweater.
• Portability: Carrying an ox or bags of wheat (traded for the ox) to different places is difficult.
• Durability: Wheat rots or gets eaten by rats, so it cannot be stored for long.

These problems made trading slow and complex, so a better system was needed. Money solves these issues by being a common, portable, divisible, and durable way to trade.

Modern barter examples still exist, like:

• Junbeel Mela in Assam, where people trade roots, vegetables, and handmade goods for rice cakes and food.
• Book exchanges, where people swap old books for new ones.
• Trading old clothes for new utensils, benefiting both households and vendors.

Try yourself:

What is one problem of the barter system mentioned in the text?

• A.Double coincidence of wants
• B.High storage cost
• C.Lack of technology
• D.Limited trade locations

View SolutionBasic Functions of Money

Money was invented to make trading easier as the barter system became complex with more goods and longer distances. Money simplifies trade, supports salaries, school fees, and everyday purchases, making life easier than barter.

Main functions of money:

• Medium of exchange: Money is used to buy and sell goods and services, accepted by everyone, unlike barter’s need for double coincidence.
• Store of value: Money can be saved and used later, unlike wheat that rots. For example, a farmer can keep money from selling an ox for future purchases.
• Common denomination: Money measures the value of goods (prices), making it easy to compare items, like books or shoes.
• Standard of deferred payment: Money allows payments to be made later. For example, if a book costs ₹100 but you have ₹50, you can ask the shopkeeper to accept the rest later.

Try yourself:

What is one main function of money?

• A.Medium of exchange
• B.Source of food
• C.Type of clothing
• D.Kind of transportation

View Solution

The Journey of Money

Money has changed over time to meet people’s needs.

Journey of Money

Early forms:

• Items like cowrie shells, Rai stones (giant rock discs in Micronesia), Aztec copper Tajadero, and red feather coils (Solomon Islands) were used as money.

Coinage:

• Coins were one of the earliest forms of money, issued by rulers for transactions in their kingdoms.
• Made from precious metals like gold, silver, or copper alloys, called kārshāpanas or panas in ancient India.
• Had symbols (rupas) like animals, trees, kings, or deities. For example, Chalukya coins had a Varaha (Vishnu avatar) and a parasol; Chola coins had a tiger.
• Powerful rulers’ coins were accepted across kingdoms, boosting trade.
• Roman coins found in Tamil Nadu and Kerala show India’s strong maritime trade with the world, favoring India’s economy.
  Roman Gold Coins
• Modern coins use iron alloys with chromium, silicon, and carbon, and have Hindi and English text. Special coins mark national events.
• In 1947, 1 anna (1/16 of a rupee) could buy a dozen bananas.
• The ₹ symbol, designed by Udaya Kumar in 2010, combines Devanagari “Ra,” Roman “R,” and two stripes for the national flag.

Paper currency:

• Paper money began in China and was introduced in India in the late 18th century by banks like the Bank of Bengal and Bank of Bombay.
  Paper Currency
• Used for higher denominations (e.g., ₹10, ₹100, ₹500), while coins are for smaller ones (e.g., ₹1, ₹5).
• Modern notes have cultural motifs (e.g., on ₹50 or ₹100 notes) and special features like raised marks for the visually impaired to identify denominations.
• The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) is the only legal authority to issue currency in India, ensuring control and preventing illegal printing.
  Try yourself:What were early forms of money mentioned in the text?
  • A.Digital currency
  • B.Cowrie shells
  • C.Paper notes
  • D.Plastic cards
  View Solution

Digital money:

• With technology, money became intangible (cannot be touched), called digital money.
• Example: Krishnappa, a fruit seller, uses a QR code for customers to pay digitally, transferring money to his bank account.
• Other methods include debit cards, credit cards, net banking, and UPI (Unified Payments Interface), moving money directly between bank accounts.
  UPI

Points to Remember

• The barter system was used before money, trading goods like cowrie shells and cattle.
• Money was developed to overcome barter’s limitations, like double coincidence of wants and lack of durability.
• Money evolved from coins and paper currency to digital forms like UPI and QR codes.

Difficult Words

• Barter System: Exchanging goods or services without using money.
• Money: A common tool accepted for buying or selling goods and services.
• Transaction: A business deal, like buying or selling something.
• Commodities: Items used for trade, like cowrie shells or cattle.
• Double coincidence of wants: When two people each have what the other wants for trade.
• Common standard measure of value: An agreed way to measure the worth of goods.
• Divisibility: The ability to split something into smaller parts for trade.
• Portability: The ease of carrying or moving something.
• Durability: The ability of something to last long without damage.
• Medium of exchange: Something accepted by all for buying and selling.
• Store of value: Something that can be saved and used later.
• Common denomination: A way to measure and compare the value of goods.
• Standard of deferred payment: Using money to pay for something later.
• Coinage: Coins used as money, often made by rulers.
• Currency: The money system of a country, like rupees in India.
• Denominations: Different units of money, like ₹1 or ₹100.
• Obverse: The front side of a coin with the main design.
• Digital money: Money in electronic form, not physical coins or notes.
• QR Code: A pattern of squares scanned by phones for digital payments.

Introduction

The Constitution of India is a special document that sets the rules for running the country, adopted on 26 January 1950, celebrated as Republic Day.

Republic Day Parade

• Dr. Rajendra Prasad, India’s first President, said following the Constitution can make India great, but it needs hard work, respect for others’ views, and moral values.
• A constitution is like a rulebook that guides how a country’s government works and protects citizens’ rights.
• The Indian Constitution was shaped by the freedom struggle and India’s cultural heritage.
• It remains important today because it supports democracy and ensures fairness and equality.

What Is a Constitution?

A constitution is a document that lists a country’s basic rules and laws. 

• India’s Constitution is kept safe in a helium-filled glass case in Parliament, showing its importance.
• Important officials like the President, Prime Minister, and judges promise to follow it.

Constitution of India in Helium filled Glass CaseIt explains:

• How the three parts of government (legislature, executive, judiciary) work and their responsibilities.
• Checks and balances to ensure the government is fair and accountable.
• The rights and duties of citizens.
• The country’s long-term goals and values, like equality and justice.

Why we need a constitution:

• It acts like a rulebook, similar to rules in a game (e.g., kabaddi), to settle disputes fairly.
• Without a rulebook, disagreements could cause chaos, as seen in a kabaddi match where players argued over a rule.
• Everyone must agree to follow the constitution to ensure order and fairness.
  Try yourself:What is celebrated as Republic Day in India?
  • A.26 January
  • B.1 November
  • C.2 October
  • D.15 August
  View Solution

Writing the Constitution of India

While fighting for independence from British rule, India planned how to govern itself. Big questions included: What type of government? Who can vote? How to settle disputes?

Constituent Assembly

• A Constituent Assembly was formed in 1946 to answer these questions and write the Constitution.
• Dr. Sachidananda Sinha, the first President of the Assembly, wished for wisdom and fairness in the process.

How Was Our Constitution Developed?

• The Constituent Assembly started on 9 December 1946 with 389 members (later 299 after Partition), including 15 women, representing India’s diverse regions and groups.
• Dr. Rajendra Prasad was the Chairman of the Assembly.
• A Drafting Committee, led by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar, prepared the initial text. Dr. Ambedkar was a social reformer and India’s first Law and Justice Minister.
• It took almost three years to complete, from 1946 to 26 November 1949, when the Constitution was adopted.
• It came into effect on 26 January 1950, now celebrated as Republic Day.
• Members were elected by provincial assemblies, which were chosen by the people, ensuring a democratic process.

What Shaped and Influenced the Indian Constitution?

The Constitution was influenced by three main sources:
Indian Freedom Movement:

• Values like equality, justice, freedom, and fraternity from the freedom struggle were included.
• Freedom movement leaders in the Constituent Assembly brought their experiences.
• It answered key questions, like ensuring universal adult franchise, separation of powers, and protecting fundamental rights.
• It set rules for amending the Constitution and the relationship between Central and State governments.

India’s Civilisational Heritage:

• India’s culture emphasizes unity in diversity, respect for different views, and nature as sacred.
• Ideas like vasudhaiva kutumbakam (world is one family) and sarve bhavantu sukhinah (well-being of all) are part of the Constitution.
• Historical governance systems (janapadas, sanghas, Kauṭilya’s saptanga, rājadharma) focused on people’s roles, influencing Fundamental Duties.

Learnings from Other Countries:

Following the Indian tradition of “Let noble thoughts come from every side,” the Assembly studied other constitutions.

• France: Inspired liberty, equality, and fraternity from the 1789 French Revolution.
• Ireland: Influenced Directive Principles of State Policy.
• USA: Shaped the idea of an independent judiciary.
• Other countries like the UK and Australia also provided ideas.

The Constitution includes illustrations of India’s heritage, like scenes from Mahabharata, Ramayana, Mohenjo-daro, and Mughal architecture, showing cultural pride.

Try yourself:

Who was the first President of the Constituent Assembly?

• A.Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
• B.Dr. B.R. Ambedkar
• C.Dr. Sachidananda Sinha
• D.Dr. Rajendra Prasad

View SolutionKey Features of the Constitution of India

Before we get introduced to Main Features of Indian Constitution, Let’s revise how the government works:

• Legislature: Makes laws.
• Executive: Implements laws, led by the Prime Minister.
• Judiciary: Ensures laws follow the Constitution and decides punishments.
• Separation of powers: Keeps the three parts independent for fairness.
• It has a three-tier system: Central, State, and local (Panchayati Raj) governments, with clear roles.
• The electoral system ensures every adult can vote.

Main features of Indian Constitution:

• Fundamental Rights: Promises like equality (Article 14), freedom (Article 21), education (Article 21-A), and protection from exploitation. Citizens can go to court if these are violated.
• Fundamental Duties: Responsibilities like respecting the Constitution, defending the country, preserving cultural heritage, protecting nature, and ensuring children’s education.
• Directive Principles of State Policy (DPSP): Goals for the government, like improving living standards, ensuring justice (Article 38), protecting the environment (Article 48-A), and promoting health (Article 47). These are guidelines, not enforceable in court.

Begum Aizaz Rasul in 1949 said the Constitution’s equality for women (Article 14) reflects India’s ancient ideal, though social issues had weakened it.The Constitution Is a Living Document

The Constitution can be changed through amendments to meet new needs, making it a living document.

Illustration in Constitution of IndiaExamples of changes:

• Fundamental Duties were added in 1976 (Part IV-A).
• In 2004, the Supreme Court allowed citizens to fly the national flag at home, part of the Right to Freedom of Expression.
• The Panchayati Raj System was added in 1992 via the 73rd Amendment.

Amendments:

• Amendments are debated in Parliament and sometimes state assemblies, with public opinions often considered.
• Popular movements can also lead to changes.
• The Constitution’s text was handwritten by Prem Behari Narain Raizada, and Nandalal Bose illustrated it with scenes from India’s history, making it a work of art.
  Try yourself:What does the executive branch of the government do?
  • A.Decides punishments
  • B.Implements laws
  • C.Ensures fairness
  • D.Makes laws
  View Solution

Understanding the Preamble: The Guiding Values of the Constitution of India

The Preamble is the introduction to the Constitution, summarizing its core values that guide the government and citizens. It reflects the Constitution’s principles, like justice, liberty, and equality, used in policymaking.

Preamble of Indian ConstitutionPreamble of the Indian Constitution explains the Constitution’s purpose and values:

• WE, THE PEOPLE OF INDIA: The Constitution was made by the people through their representatives, not a king or foreign power.
• SOVEREIGN: India makes its own decisions, free from outside control.
• SOCIALIST: Wealth should be shared fairly, and the government reduces economic inequalities. (Added in 1976)
• SECULAR: No official religion; all religions are respected equally. (Added in 1976)
• DEMOCRATIC: People have equal political rights, elect leaders, and hold them accountable.
• REPUBLIC: The head of state is elected, not hereditary.
• JUSTICE: No discrimination based on caste, religion, or gender; the government works for everyone’s welfare.
• LIBERTY: Citizens can think, express, and act freely within reasonable limits.
• EQUALITY: All are equal before the law, with equal opportunities.
• FRATERNITY: Promotes unity and brotherhood among citizens.

Examples in daily life:

• Secular: People can practice their religion freely without state interference.
• Equality: Jobs are open to all, regardless of gender, caste, or religion.

Points to Remember

• The Constitution of India is a rulebook protecting citizens’ rights and listing their duties.
• It was built on India’s civilizational heritage, the freedom struggle, and ideas from other countries’ constitutions.
• Key features include the structure of government, Fundamental Rights, Fundamental Duties, and Directive Principles.
• It is a living document, changeable through amendments to meet new needs.

Difficult Words

• Constitution: A document with a country’s basic rules and laws.
• Legislature: The government part that makes laws.
• Executive: The government part that implements laws.
• Judiciary: The government part that ensures laws are followed and settles disputes.
• Checks and balances: Systems to ensure the government is fair and accountable.
• Fundamental Rights: Basic rights like equality and freedom that citizens can demand in court.
• Fundamental Duties: Responsibilities of citizens, like respecting the Constitution.
• Directive Principles of State Policy: Guidelines for the government to improve the country, not enforceable in court.
• Constituent Assembly: The group that wrote the Indian Constitution.
• Republic Day: 26 January, when the Constitution came into effect in 1950.
• Universal adult franchise: The right of all adults to vote.
• Separation of powers: Keeping the legislature, executive, and judiciary independent.
• Amendment: A change made to the Constitution.
• Preamble: The introduction to the Constitution, stating its values.
• Sovereign: A country’s right to make its own decisions without outside control.
• Socialist: A system to share wealth fairly and reduce inequalities.
• Secular: Treating all religions equally with no official religion.
• Democratic: A government where people elect leaders and hold them accountable.
• Republic: A country with an elected head, not a king.
• Justice: Fair treatment for all, reducing discrimination.
• Liberty: Freedom to think, speak, and act within limits.
• Equality: Equal treatment and opportunities for all.
• Fraternity: Unity and brotherhood among citizens.

Introduction

A government is a system that runs a country, making rules and ensuring people’s safety and welfare. Kauṭilya in his book Arthaśhāstra said a ruler’s duties are: protecting the country from enemies (raksha), keeping peace inside (pālana), and caring for people’s well-being.

• There are different types of governments, like democracy, monarchy, and others, each working differently.
• Governments get their power from different sources, such as the people in a democracy or a king in a monarchy.
• Governments interact with people by making laws, providing services, and ensuring fairness.
• Democracy is important because it gives people a voice in how their country is run.

What is Government? What are its Functions?

A government is a group that manages a country, making sure it runs smoothly. India has a democratic government, but other countries have different types.

Government has many roles:

• Keeping law and order so society is safe.
• Ensuring peace, stability, and security for everyone.
• Managing relations with other countries.
• Protecting the country through national defence.
• Providing important services like education, healthcare, and roads.
• Managing the economy, like trade and money matters.
• Working for people’s welfare to improve their lives.

What is Democracy?

Democracy means “rule of the people,” where the people are the source of power. 

Voting in India to Elect Government

Example: In a school, students need to manage tasks like timetables, sports, and meals. A Student Committee can be formed to make and follow rules.Three ways to form the committee were suggested:

• Every student joins the committee (hard to manage).
• The Head Teacher picks students (not everyone’s voice is heard).
• Students vote for representatives from each grade (fairest way).

The third way, where students choose representatives, is like a democracy because it includes everyone’s voice. Abraham Lincoln, a US president, called democracy a “government of the people, by the people, for the people.”Functions of Government

In a democracy, people choose representatives to do these jobs, but the process differs in each country. Like a school committee, a government has three main jobs:

• Legislative function: Making rules (laws) to run the country.
• Executive function: Carrying out the rules and managing the country.
• Judicial function: Ensuring everyone follows the rules and settling disputes.
  Try yourself:What is the fairest way to form a student committee?
  • A.No committee is formed
  • B.Every student joins the committee
  • C.The Head Teacher picks students
  • D.Students vote for representatives from each grade
  View Solution

What Makes Governments Different?

Governments vary because each country has its own history, culture, and goals.
Key differences include:

• Who decides what the government is?
• How is the government formed?
• What are the parts of the government, and what do they do?
• What goals is the government working for?

Key Differences Between Governments

• Who decides “this is the government”?
  In a democracy, the people decide through voting. In a theocracy, religious beliefs and leaders give power.
• How is the government formed?
  In a democracy, it’s through elections. In a monarchy, a king or queen from the family rules.
• What are the parts of the government? 
  ​The legislative, executive, and judiciary parts may be separate or combined. In democracies, rules are often in a constitution. In monarchies, the king may decide.
• What is the government working for?
  Some governments, like India’s, aim for equality and prosperity for all. Others may focus on certain groups or families.

Democratic Governments Around the World

• Democracy is the most popular government type today, but democracies differ in how they work.
• Some countries adopted democracy long ago: USA (1787), Switzerland (1848), India (1947), Germany (1949), Kenya (1964), Nepal (2008).

Fundamental Principles of Democracy

• Equality: Everyone is treated the same, with equal access to education, health, and laws.
• Freedom: People can make choices and express opinions freely.
• Representative participation: People choose representatives through elections.
• Universal adult franchise: Every adult can vote to choose representatives.
• Fundamental rights: Rights like equality, free speech, and protection from exploitation are guarded.
• Independent judiciary: Courts protect rights and ensure laws are followed by everyone, including the government.

These principles are ideals, not always fully achieved. For example, India gave all adults voting rights in 1950, but Switzerland gave women voting rights only in 1971.Different Forms of Democratic Governments

• Direct democracy: All citizens directly make rules and decisions. Used in small places like parts of Switzerland, but hard in big countries.
• Representative democracy: People elect representatives to govern, like in India. Elections happen regularly (every 5 years in India, 4 years in the USA). 
  Here are two Types of representative democracy:
  1. Parliamentary democracy: The executive (prime minister and ministers) is part of the legislature (parliament). They need the legislature’s support (e.g., Lok Sabha in India). People elect the legislature, not the executive.
  2. Presidential democracy: The president is elected separately and works independently of the legislature (e.g., USA). In India, states like Rajasthan have their own governments but are guided by the Union Government.
  Try yourself:How is a government formed in a democracy?
  • A.Through military force
  • B.By religious leaders
  • C.By royal decree
  • D.Through elections
  View Solution

What Do These Terms Mean?

• Executive: The part of government that carries out laws. Its election process varies by country.
• Legislature: The group that makes laws, called Parliament in India and Congress in the USA. It often has two parts: Upper House (e.g., Rajya Sabha) and Lower House (e.g., Lok Sabha). 
  1. Lower House: Elected directly by people, usually more powerful (e.g., Lok Sabha in India).
  2. Upper House: Elected or nominated, less powerful (e.g., Rajya Sabha in India).
• Separation of Power: The legislature, executive, and judiciary work independently without interfering with each other.

A Peek into History

In ancient India, the Vajji mahajanapada (Lichchhavi clan) was an early republic. Leaders were chosen based on merit, and clans met to solve issues, ensuring people’s welfare.

• Republic: A government where the head is elected, not a hereditary king.
• Uttaramerur inscriptions from the 10th century CE in Tamil Nadu show how the Chola village sabha elected members using sealed ballot boxes. Rules included qualifications, duties, and removal for corruption.
  Chola Period Inscriptions
• In ancient Greece and Rome (5th–4th century BCE), republics existed, but only free men could vote, excluding women and slaves.

Other Forms of Government

1. Monarchy: Ruled by a king or queen(monarch), usually hereditary.

• In ancient India, mahajanapadas had kings advised by sabhā or samiti. Empires gave kings more power, but they relied on ministers and scholars for dharma.
• Some kings claimed divine power, but in India, kings followed rājadharma, ruling fairly for people’s welfare.
• Example from Mahābhārata: Bhīshma taught Yudhiṣhṭhira that a king prioritizes people’s welfare, applies laws fairly, avoids ego, and seeks wise advice.
• Example from Rajatarangini (12th century CE): King Chandrapiḍa respected a cobbler’s hut, showing fairness and dharma.

Monarchies Today:  Here are the types of modern monarchies

• Absolute monarchy: The monarch has full power (e.g., Saudi Arabia, where the king rules by Islamic law but has advisors).
• Constitutional monarchy: The monarch has little power, and a parliament governs (e.g., United Kingdom, where the prime minister and parliament hold power).
  King Charles in a Ceremonial Coach

2. Theocracy: Ruled by religious rules and leaders.

• Iran (Islamic Republic of Iran) combines theocracy and democracy. The Supreme Leader, chosen by clerics, has ultimate power, guided by Islamic principles. An elected president and parliament handle daily governance.
• Other theocracies: Afghanistan and Vatican City.

3. Dictatorship: One person or small group has unlimited power, not bound by laws.
Adolf Hitler

• Example: Adolf Hitler in Germany (1933–1945) became a dictator, caused the Holocaust (killing six million Jews), and started World War II.
• Example: Idi Amin in Uganda killed thousands and forced Indians to flee.
• Example: In North Korea, Shane’s life shows strict rules on haircuts, clothes, and internet access, with the government watching closely, unlike a democracy.

4. Oligarchy: A small, powerful group (often wealthy families) makes decisions.

• In ancient Greece, aristocratic families ruled as oligarchies.
• Today, some democracies may act like oligarchies if a few rich or powerful people control decisions.
  Try yourself:What is the role of the executive branch in government?
  • A.Monitors elections
  • B.Carries out laws
  • C.Makes laws
  • D.Interprets laws
  View Solution

Why Democracy Matters

Democracy is considered better than other governments because it gives people more rights and choices.

• In a democracy, people can choose how to live, speak, dress, and believe, as long as they don’t harm others.
• The government is accountable to the people, protecting their rights and providing basic needs.
• If the government fails, people can change it through elections.
• Democracy has challenges like corruption, wealth gaps, and control by a few, but citizens must stay alert to fix these.
• More than half the world’s countries are democracies because they value people’s freedom and well-being.

Comparison of government types:

• Universal adult franchise: Only in democracy (Yes); not in dictatorship, absolute monarchy, or oligarchy (No).
• Equality: Democracy aims for equality (Yes); others often don’t (No).
• Freedom of speech: Allowed in democracy (Yes); limited or absent in others (No).
• Separation of powers: Present in democracy (Yes); often absent in others (No).
• Well-being of all: Democracy focuses on all citizens (Yes); others may prioritize certain groups (No).

Points to Remember

• Government runs a country, and different types answer: Who decides the government? What are its parts? What are its goals?
• Democracy is the most popular government type, with variations like direct and representative democracy.
• Representative democracy has two types: parliamentary (like India) and presidential.
• Other government types include monarchy, theocracy, dictatorship, and oligarchy.
• Democracy matters but faces challenges, and citizens must stay vigilant.

Difficult Words

• Government: The system that manages a country, making rules and providing services.
• Democracy: A government where people choose their leaders through voting.
• Representative: A person chosen to act or decide for others.
• Legislative: The job of making laws.
• Executive: The job of carrying out laws and managing the country.
• Judicial: The job of ensuring laws are followed and settling disputes.
• Constitution: A book of basic rules for running a country.
• Universal adult franchise: The right of all adults to vote.
• Fundamental rights: Basic rights like equality and free speech protected in a democracy.
• Independent judiciary: Courts that work separately from other government parts to protect rights.
• Republic: A government with an elected head, not a king.
• Monarchy: A government led by a king or queen.
• Theocracy: A government ruled by religious leaders and rules.
• Dictatorship: A government where one person or group has all power.
• Oligarchy: A government where a small, powerful group rules.
• Accountability: The government’s responsibility to answer to the people.
• Sovereign: A government’s independent power, free from outside control.
• Rājadharma: The duty of a king to rule fairly according to moral principles.

Introduction

Sacredness is about places, journeys, or natural elements that are holy and deeply respected in religious or spiritual beliefs. In India, the land becomes sacred through pilgrimages, sacred sites, and the belief that nature, like rivers and mountains, is divine.

• Sacred sites and pilgrimage networks connect people across India, shaping their culture and traditions.
• Sacred geography helped unite India’s diverse regions by encouraging cultural exchange and shared values.

What is ‘Sacredness’?

Sacredness means something holy or deeply meaningful in religion or spirituality, deserving respect. It can be a special place, like a shrine, or a journey, like a pilgrimage, that feels divine. Sacredness is linked to geography (land, rivers, mountains), traditions, and India’s unique culture.

Sacred Places in IndiaEvery religion in India has its own sacred places:

• Islam: Dargah Sharif in Ajmer, Rajasthan, is visited for prayers.
• Christianity: Velankanni Church in Tamil Nadu attracts many visitors.
• Buddhism: Great Stūpa at Sanchi and Mahabodhi Stūpa in Bodh Gaya, where Buddha attained enlightenment, draw millions.
• Sikhism: Takhts like Akal Takht in Amritsar and Takht Sri Patna Sahib are spiritual centers linked to Sikh Gurus.
• Jainism: Places like Mount Abu and Shatruñjaya hill in Gujarat are sacred due to Tirthankaras’ events.
• People of different faiths visit these sites, showing India’s shared respect for sacred places.
  Try yourself:What does ‘sacredness’ mean?
  • A.A historical event
  • B.A type of geographical feature
  • C.A form of government
  • D.Something holy or meaningful in religion
  View Solution

Pilgrimages

Pilgrimages, or tīrthayātrās, are journeys to sacred sites called tīrthas, important in Indian culture for over 3,000 years.

Pilgrimages

• They are both a physical trip and an inner journey, following a special code of conduct.
• Pilgrims travel across India, from Badrinath in the Himalayas to Kanyakumari in the south, making the entire land sacred.
• An example from historian Dharampal: A group from near Lucknow traveled for three months to Rameswaram, carrying food supplies, and then went to Haridwar without stopping in Delhi, showing their dedication.
• Pilgrimages connect people, as seen in Sikh Gurus like Guru Nanak, who visited places like Haridwar, Prayag, and Puri.
• The Sabarimala temple in Kerala, dedicated to Ayyappa, attracts over 10 million pilgrims yearly, reached by a tough trek symbolizing spiritual challenges.

More Sacred Sites

• In Hinduism, folk, and tribal beliefs, nature like mountains, rivers, trees, and animals is sacred.
• Rivers are seen as devis (goddesses), and some trees, plants, and animals are holy, reflecting a belief in a divine presence in nature.
• The entire Earth is considered Mother Earth or Bhudevi.

Vishnu in boar formExamples of sacred sites:

• Niyam Dongar hill in Jharkhand, sacred to the Dongria Khond tribe as the home of Niyam Raja, where cutting trees is forbidden.
• In Sikkim, sacred mountains, caves, lakes, and hot springs are protected from damage.
• In the Nilgiris, the Toda tribe considers mountain peaks, plants, Shola forests, wetlands, and stones sacred.
  Try yourself:What is a pilgrimage in Indian culture?
  • A.A journey to sacred sites
  • B.A type of festival
  • C.A form of meditation
  • D.A cooking tradition
  View Solution

Becoming Aware of Sacred Geography

Sacred geography refers to sacred sites across India that are interconnected, forming networks. The Char Dhām Yātrā includes four sites in India’s north, south, east, and west, encouraging travel across the country.

Char Dhams

• The 12 Jyotirlingas, sacred to Śhiva, and 51 Shakti Pithas, linked to Shakti, cover India’s map, including Bangladesh and Pakistan.
• A story about the Shakti Pithas: When Sati died, Viṣhṇu cut her body, and parts fell across India, making those places sacred as the divine mother’s body.
• These networks make the entire land sacred, uniting India’s diverse regions.
• Pilgrims traveling to these sites encounter different languages, customs, and foods, but also see shared Indian values.

Sacred Ecology

Tīrthas are often near rivers, lakes, forests, or mountains, seen as sacred spaces called punyakshetra. Viewing nature as sacred helps protect it, as humans feel connected to it. Sacred ecology blends geography, culture, and spirituality to preserve nature.

Rivers and Sangams (Confluence of Rivers)

• Rivers have been worshipped since Vedic times, as seen in the Nadistuti Sūkta of the Rigveda, praising 19 ancient rivers.
• Rituals invoke rivers like Ganga, Yamuna, Godavari, Sarasvati, Narmada, Sindhu, and Kaveri.
• These rivers are lifelines, and their sources, tributaries, and paths are sacred, visited by pilgrims.
• People respectfully call rivers “Ganga ji” or “Yamuna ji” in local languages.
• Sangams, where rivers meet, like in Prayagraj (Ganga, Yamuna, and invisible Sarasvati), are especially holy.

Kumbh Mela

• The Kumbh Mela is a major pilgrimage held every six years in Haridwar, Prayagraj, Nashik, and Ujjain.

Kumbh Mela

• It comes from the legend of amrita manthana, where gods and demons churned the ocean for amrita (nectar).
• Viṣhṇu, as Mohini, took the amrita pitcher, and drops fell at the four Kumbh Mela sites, making them holy.
• A dip in the rivers during the Kumbh Mela is considered very auspicious.
• In 2025, about 660 million people joined the Kumbh Mela, showing its importance.
• UNESCO listed the Kumbh Mela as an “intangible heritage of the world” for its cultural value.
  Try yourself:What is the significance of the Kumbh Mela?
  • A.All of the above.
  • B.It is listed as a UNESCO heritage site.
  • C.It involves churning the ocean for amrita.
  • D.It is a major pilgrimage held every six years.
  View Solution

Mountains and Forests

Mountains are linked to legends and deities, seen as gateways to heaven due to their height. Many tīrthas and temples, like those in the Himalayas, are on hilltops, symbolizing a spiritual journey.

Sacred Mountains

• Pilgrims once walked tough mountain trails, testing their physical and mental strength, though roads now make access easier.
• Forests are sacred in many traditions, often seen as homes of deities.

Trees, Forests and Sacred Groves

Trees like the peepul (bodhi tree) are sacred in Hinduism, Buddhism, Sikhism, and Jainism, often adorned with turmeric and kumkum. The peepul at Mahabodhi Temple in Bodh Gaya is believed to be linked to the tree under which Buddha attained enlightenment

MahaBodhi Temple at Bodh Gaya

• Peepul trees have medical uses (leaves for skin, bark for stomach issues) and support birds and animals year-round.
• A Mohenjo-daro seal shows peepul leaves, proving its importance for millennia.
• Sacred groves are protected forests seen as deity homes, like Ryngkew in Meghalaya, preserving biodiversity and water bodies.
• Examples of sacred grove names: kāvu (Malayalam), kovilkadu (Tamil), devare kādu (Kannada), devarāi (Marathi), sarnā (Jharkhand).
• In Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu, sacred groves’ deities protect fruit bats, which help pollinate flowers and spread seeds, creating harmony between nature and humans.
• Many sacred groves are shrinking due to farming and industry, but some communities still protect them.

From Pilgrimage to Trade

• Pilgrims and traders often meet on pilgrimage routes, benefiting both.
• Pilgrims buy goods from traders, and some traders visit sacred sites while selling wares.
• Pilgrimage routes and trade routes often overlap, like Uttarapatha (northwest to east) and Dakshinapatha (Kaushambi to Pratiṣhṭhāna).
• Traded goods included shells, pearls, gold, diamonds, cotton, spices, and sandalwood.
• These interactions led to sharing of goods, ideas, and stories, enriching India’s culture.

Sacred Geography beyond India

Sacred geography exists outside India too.

• Ancient Greece had sacred mountains and groves.
• Native Americans saw nature as sacred.
• The Maoris of New Zealand view Taranaki Maunga mountain as an ancestor, recently given human-like rights to protect it.
• Community elders speak for sacred places to prevent harm, ensuring their preservation.

Restoring and Conserving the Sacred

• The bond between people and sacred geography sustained Indian civilization for thousands of years, creating shared values.

Pollution at Sacred Sites

• Today, this bond is strained as sacred places like rivers (Yamuna, Mahanadi, Kaveri) are polluted.
• When rivers or mountains face harm from overuse or development, people speak up to protect their deities and environment.
• Sacred geography supports sustainability, offering lessons for global environmental care.
• It is everyone’s duty to protect sacred places, as reminded by India’s Constitution.
  Try yourself:What is the peepul tree known for in various religions?
  • A.Being used for furniture
  • B.Providing shade
  • C.Being a home for deities
  • D.Growing fruit
  View Solution

Points to Remember

• All religions in India have sacred places across the land.
• In Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism, sacred sites are linked to great figures or events.
• Hinduism has many pilgrimage sites, supporting personal growth, trade, and cultural unity across India.
• In Hindu, tribal, and folk traditions, the land itself is sacred.
• Sacred places are polluted due to neglect, and it is our duty to protect them as part of our national heritage.

Difficult Words

• Sacredness: The quality of being holy or deeply respected in religion or spirituality.
• Pilgrimage: A journey to a sacred place for religious or spiritual reasons.
• Shrine: A holy place linked to a divine figure, relic, or spiritual person.
• Relic: A body part or belonging of a holy person kept for reverence.
• Tīrthayātrā: A pilgrimage to a sacred site in Indian traditions.
• Tirthankara: In Jainism, a supreme teacher who guides people to a higher life.
• Punyakshetra: A sacred space, like a riverbank or mountain, in Indian beliefs.
• Char Dhām Yātrā: A pilgrimage to four sacred sites in India’s north, south, east, and west.
• Jyotirlingas: 12 sacred shrines dedicated to Śhiva in Hinduism.
• Shakti Pithas: 51 sacred sites linked to the goddess Shakti.
• Nadistuti Sūkta: A Vedic hymn praising rivers.
• Sangam: The meeting point of rivers, considered holy.
• Kumbh Mela: A major pilgrimage at four sacred river sites, held every six years.
• Amrita: Divine nectar of immortality in Hindu stories.
• Sacred Groves: Protected forests seen as homes of deities, preserving nature.
• Biodiversity: The variety of plants and animals in a place.
• Sustainability: Using resources carefully to protect the environment for the future.

Introduction

The Gupta Era (3rd to 6th century CE) is known for its progress in art, literature, science, and governance.

Gupta Empire

• The Gupta Empire ruled much of north and west India, creating a stable and prosperous society.
• This period is called the Classical Age because of its cultural and intellectual achievements, like beautiful temples, Sanskrit literature, and scientific discoveries.
• Other kingdoms, like the Pallavas in the south and Kamarupa in the northeast, also thrived.
• Great figures like Aryabhata, Varahamihira, and Kalidasa made lasting contributions.

A New Power Emerges

By the 3rd century CE, the Kushana Empire in north and northwest India weakened, allowing new kingdoms to form.

Iron Pillar, Mehraulli, Delhi

• The Gupta dynasty emerged in present-day Uttar Pradesh as local rulers and grew into a powerful empire.
• The Gupta period is famous for advancements in art, architecture, literature, and science, especially under Chandragupta II.
• The Iron Pillar in Delhi, over 1,600 years old, shows their advanced metallurgy as it resists rust due to a special iron layer.

Try yourself:

What period is known as the Classical Age in India?

• A.Maurya Era
• B.Mughal Era
• C.Gupta Era
• D.Vedic Age

View SolutionThe Warrior King

• Samudragupta, father of Chandragupta II, was a great warrior king who expanded the Gupta Empire.
• The Prayaga Prashasti, a pillar inscription in Prayagraj by court poet Harisena, praises Samudragupta’s conquests.
• Samudragupta aimed to unify India, called dharani-bandha, by defeating kings and taking their lands.
• Many defeated kings were allowed to rule again but paid tribute, while others surrendered without fighting.
• Harisena wrote that Samudragupta supported art, learning, and trade, making his kingdom wealthy.
• A coin shows Samudragupta playing the veena, highlighting his love for music.
• He performed the ashvamedha yajña, a ritual to show his power, and minted special coins with a sacrificial horse.
• The Vishnu Puraṇa lists key Gupta regions: Anuganga, Prayaga, Saketa, and Magadha, but the empire grew larger, covering most of north, west, central, and east India.

Gold Coin featuring King Chandragupta with his KingA Traveller’s Account of Indian Society in the Gupta Age

Faxian, a Chinese traveller, visited India in the early 5th century CE to see Buddhist sites, study with scholars, and collect texts. His travelogue, A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms, describes Gupta society:

• People were happy, didn’t need to register households, and faced no heavy official duties.
• Farmers paid a portion of their grain as tax on royal land.
• The king’s guards and attendants received salaries.
• Cities in the Gangetic plains were large, with rich and kind inhabitants.
• Vaishya (merchant) families built charity houses for the poor, orphans, and sick, offering food and medicine.
• Cities had wealthy merchants, foreign traders, beautiful homes, and clean lanes.
• Faxian also noted harsh treatment of chandalas (outcastes), who lived outside cities, showing not all parts of society were equal.
• Historians use Faxian’s account but check other sources to understand the full picture, as it reflects only his view.

Glimpses of the Gupta Empire

The Gupta Empire was a time of peace and progress, with advancements in many fields. It coexisted with other kingdoms, some of which fought for power. The Guptas used military conquests, diplomacy, and alliances to build their empire, following Kautilya’s saptanga ideas, like forming allies (mitra). Their legacy in art, science, and literature continues to inspire today. 

Governance and Administration

• The Guptas had a well-organizedadministration system, dividing the empire into provinces.
• They gave land grants to local rulers, priests, and chieftains, recorded on copper plates for accurate tax collection.
• This system allowed local leaders to govern their areas while the Guptas managed the empire efficiently.

New Kings … New Titles

• Gupta rulers used grand titles like maharajadhiraja, samrat, and chakravartin, showing their supreme power, unlike earlier kings’ simpler titles like rajan or maharaja.
• They expanded the empire through military conquests, diplomacy, and matrimonial alliances.
• Prabhavati Gupta, daughter of Chandragupta II, married a Vakataka prince, strengthening ties between the Guptas and Vakatakas.
• After her husband’s early death, Prabhavati became a regent ruler for her sons, ensuring strong Gupta-Vakataka relations.
• She was a devotee of Vishṇu and linked to building seven temples, including the Kevala Narasimha temple in Ramagiri, Maharashtra.

Kevala Narasimha templeThriving Trade

• The Guptas’ main income came from land tax, along with fines, taxes on mines, irrigation, trade, and crafts.
• This money supported the army, temples, infrastructure, and scholars and artists.
• India traded textiles, spices, ivory, and gemstones with the Mediterranean, Southeast Asia, and China via the Indian Ocean trade network.
• Socotra Island in the Arabian Sea was a key trading stop, with evidence of Indian traders (pottery, Brahmi inscriptions, Buddhist stupa designs) alongside Egyptians, Arabs, Romans, and Greeks.
• Trade promoted rich cultural exchanges across regions.

Try yourself:

What was one of Samudragupta’s contributions to society?

• A.Promoted art and learning
• B.Limited trade with other regions
• C.Created a new religion
• D.Built a wall around the empire

View Solution

New Ideas and Wonders: The Classical Age

Gupta rulers followed Vishṇu, as seen in coins and inscriptions, but supported other beliefs, including Buddhism. They funded Nalanda University and Buddhist viharas (monasteries), showing an inclusive approach.

• Peace and stability led to the Classical Age, with progress in many fields.
• Sanskrit literature grew, with works by Kalidasa and major Puraṇas.
• Aryabhata and Varahamihira advanced mathematics and astronomy.
• Medical texts improved health practices, and metallurgy progressed, as seen in the Iron Pillar.
• Stability strengthened the economy, allowing support for scholars, artists, and scientists, boosting cultural growth.

Aryabhata

• Aryabhata lived around 500 CE in Kusumapura (near Patna), a learning center.
• He wrote the Aryabhatiya, a book on mathematics and astronomy.
• He calculated the motions of the Sun, Moon, and planets.
• Aryabhata said the Earth spins on its axis, explaining day and night.
• He estimated a year as 365 days, 6 hours, 12 minutes, and 30 seconds, close to the modern value (365 days, 5 hours, 48 minutes, 45 seconds).
• He gave a good estimate of the Earth’s size and explained solar and lunar eclipses.
• In mathematics, he shared methods for calculations and solving equations, some still taught today.
• His work influenced science in India and beyond.

Varahamihira

• Varahamihira, a mathematician, astronomer, and astrologer, lived in Ujjayini, a city known for learning.
• His book, Brihat Samhita, covered astronomy, astrology, weather forecasting, architecture, town planning, and farming.
• He combined observation, logic, and traditional knowledge, making him a pioneer in science.

Kalidasa

• Kalidasa, a famous poet, contributed to Sanskrit literature with his refined poetry.
• Little is known about his life, but legends say he worked hard to overcome ridicule and succeed.
• His poem Meghadutam (The Cloud Messenger) tells of a yaksha sending a message to his beloved via a cloud.
• The poem describes love, north India’s landscapes, and weather in detail.

The Quest for Beauty

Gupta rulers created an environment where creativity and craftsmanship thrived. Key art centers included Sarnath (near Varanasi) for Buddha sculptures, Ajanta Caves in Maharashtra, and Udayagiri Caves in Madhya Pradesh.

• Gupta art set high standards for beauty, with detailed carvings and paintings.
• Ajanta Caves have cave temples with a seated Buddha and paintings like Bodhisattva Padmapani.
• Udayagiri Caves feature carvings of Hindu deities, like a scene from the Mahabharata showing Arjuna and Karna.

The Decline of the Guptas

By the 6th century CE, the Gupta Empire weakened due to external invasions and internal conflicts.

• The Huna tribe from central Asia attacked repeatedly, reducing Gupta control in north India.
• Powerful regional rulers caused internal challenges.
• This decline marked a turning point in Indian history, leading to new regional powers.

Meanwhile in the South and Northeast …

While the Guptas ruled the north, the Pallavas grew powerful in the south, ruling parts of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Telangana, and Andhra Pradesh.

• The Pallavas were once tributaries under the Satavahanas but gained power as the Satavahanas declined.
• They followed Shiva and built magnificent temples and rock-cut caves.
• Their capital, Kanchipuram, was called the “city of a thousand temples” and a learning center with ghatikas (schools).
• In the northeast, the Kamarupa kingdom, ruled by the Varman dynasty, covered Assam, parts of Bengal, and Bangladesh.
• Kamarupa, also called Pragjyotisha, was mentioned in the Ramayana and Mahabharata, with King Bhagadatta linked to the Mahabharata.
• Kamarupa was a cultural and political center with thriving temples and monasteries.
• Samudragupta defeated Pallava and Kamarupa rulers but let them rule as tributaries, maintaining peace.

Various Aspects of Gupta Art

• Gupta art included sculptures, paintings, and carvings known for beauty and detail.
  Aspects of Gupta Art
• At Ahichchhatra (Uttar Pradesh), terracotta sculptures show rivers Ganga and Yamuna, with Ganga on a makara (crocodile-like creature) and Yamuna on a tortoise, with water pots symbolizing rivers.
• Deogarh (Uttar Pradesh) has a temple with Vishṇu on Sheshnag from the Dashavatara temple.
• Ajanta Caves feature cave temples and paintings, like Bodhisattva Padmapani, supported by Guptas and Vakatakas.
• Udayagiri Caves and a Gupta-era temple near Sanchi show carvings, like Arjuna and Karna from the Mahabharata.

Try yourself:Which mathematician calculated the motions of the Sun, Moon, and planets?A.KalidasaB.AryabhataC.BhagadattaD.VarahamihiraView SolutionPoints to Remember

• The Gupta kings built a strong empire using military campaigns, land grants, and matrimonial alliances for stability.
• The period had great achievements in art, literature, science, and mathematics.
• Besides the Guptas, dynasties like Vakatakas, Pallavas, and Varmans made the period culturally vibrant.

Difficult Words

• Gupta Era: The period from the 3rd to 6th century CE when the Gupta Empire ruled, known for cultural progress.
• Classical Age: A time of great achievements in art, literature, and science during the Gupta period.
• Metallurgy: The science of working with metals, like making the rust-resistant Iron Pillar.
• Prayaga Prashasti: A pillar inscription praising Samudragupta’s achievements.
• Tribute: Payments or gifts given by smaller kingdoms to a powerful ruler.
• Vaishya: A social group of merchants and traders in ancient India.
• Chandalas: Outcastes who faced harsh treatment and lived outside cities.
• Saptanga: Kautilya’s seven parts of a kingdom, including allies (mitra).
• Maharajadhiraja: A title meaning “king of kings,” used by Gupta rulers.
• Regent Ruler: A person who governs temporarily for a monarch unable to rule.
• Nalanda University: A famous ancient center of learning supported by the Guptas.
• Aryabhatiya: Aryabhata’s book on mathematics and astronomy.
• Brihat Samhita: Varahamihira’s book covering many subjects like astronomy and architecture.
• Meghadutam: Kalidasa’s poem about a yaksha’s message sent via a cloud.
• Huna tribe: Central Asian invaders who weakened the Gupta Empire.
• Ghatikas: Learning centers in south India during the Pallava period.

The period after the Maurya Empire (around 185 BCE to 3rd century CE) is called the Age of Reorganisation because many new kingdoms formed as the Maurya Empire broke apart.

Glimpse of Art of Age of Reorganization

• These kingdoms competed to become powerful, reshaping India’s map and people’s lives.
• The northwest became weak, allowing foreign invaders like the Indo-Greeks, shakas, and Kushanas to enter.
• This era saw a mix of cultures, creating new styles in art, architecture, and literature.
• Rulers valued fairness, supported all schools of thought, and encouraged trade and culture.

Prominent Dynasties of India during ReorganisationSurge of the Shungas

In 185 BCE, Pushyamitra Shunga, a Maurya commander, killed the last Maurya emperor and started the Shunga dynasty.

King Rama Performing Ashwamedha Yajna

• The Shunga Empire ruled parts of north and central India but was smaller than the Maurya Empire.
• Pushyamitra performed the ashvamedha yajna, a Vedic ritual where a horse roamed freely, claiming unchallenged lands for the king or leading to battles if stopped.
• He protected the empire from invaders and built friendly ties with the Greeks after some battles.
• The Shunga Empire lasted about a century before declining.
• Vedic rituals became popular again, but Buddhist, Jain, and other beliefs continued to grow.
• Sanskrit became a key language for philosophy and literature, with works like Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras compiled during this time.
• The Shungas supported literature, art, and architecture.

Try yourself:Who started the Shunga dynasty?A.Indo-GreeksB.King RamaC.Last Maurya emperorD.Pushyamitra ShungaView Solution
Some Shunga Contribution to Art

• The Shungas added beautiful carvings to the Bharhut Stupa in Madhya Pradesh, originally built during Ashoka’s time.
• The stupa’s railings and reliefs show stories from the Buddha’s life, among the earliest Buddhist art.
• Carvings include Lakshmi, singers, dancers, and elephants holding the wheel of dharma.

Shunga Contribution to ArtOther Shunga art includes:

• Pillars with Greek warriors, showing cultural mixing.
• Terracotta figures of men, women, and royal families, with detailed hair ornaments.
• Bronze bangles with gold coating, ivory combs, and necklace beads.
• These artworks show daily life, clothing, jewellery, and the skill of Shunga craftsmen.

Try yourself:

What type of figures were included in Shunga art?

• A.Terracotta figures of royal families
• B.Marble statues of gods
• C.Wooden carvings of animals
• D.Gold-plated jewelry

View SolutionThe Satavahanas

The Satavahanas (also called Andhras) ruled the Deccan (present-day Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Maharashtra) from the 2nd century BCE.

Satavahana Coin

• Their capitals included Amravati and Pratishṭhana (Paithan).
• They likely fought the Shungas, their northern neighbors.
• Trade and agriculture thrived, supported by the fertile Krishna-Godavari river system.
• Satavahana coins, found from Gujarat to Andhra Pradesh, often showed ships, indicating strong maritime trade.
• They traded spices, textiles, sandalwood, gold-plated pearls, and ivory with the Roman Empire, importing glass and perfumed ointments.
• Tolls and taxes from trade added wealth to the kingdom.
• The Naneghat Caves near Pune, on a trade route, were used for collecting tolls and as rest stops for traders.

Naneghat Cave Near Pune

• Peace and wealth led to growth in literature, art, and culture.
• By the 3rd century CE, weak central control and economic decline broke the empire into smaller kingdoms.

Life under the Satavahanas

• Princes were named after their mothers, like Gautamiputra Satakarni, son of Gautami Balashri.
• Gautami Balashri, was a powerful queen who donated land to Buddhist monks and had an inscription carved in Nashik.
• A Satavahana widow queen performed the ashvamedha yajna and other Vedic rituals, as recorded in Naneghat inscriptions.
• She donated land, cows, horses, elephants, and silver coins to priests, scholars, and monks.

Karla Caves

• Inscriptions in Brahmi script included early numerals, some resembling modern numbers, showing India’s role in numeral development.
• The Satavahanas followed Vasudeva (Krishna)but supported Vedic scholars, Jains, and Buddhists by giving them tax-free land.
• They built the Karla Caves in Maharashtra for Buddhist monks, with carved pillars and a stupa.
• A yaksha sculpture from the Pitalkhora Caves, made by a goldsmith named Kanahadasa, shows artisans worked in both metal and stone.

Try yourself:

What type of inscriptions were found in the Karla Caves?

• A.Latin script
• B.Greek script
• C.Sanskrit script
• D.Brahmi script

View SolutionComing of the Chedis

After the Maurya Empire’s fall, Kalinga (modern Odisha) became powerful under the Chedi dynasty.

Udayagiri Caves near Bhubaneshwar

• King Kharavela, a key ruler, followed Jain teachings and was called a “monk-king” but respected all beliefs.
• The Udayagiri-Khandagiri Caves near Bhubaneswar, built for Jain monks, have detailed carvings and spacious rooms, showcasing rock-cut architecture.
• The Hathigumpha inscription in Brahmi script records Kharavela’s victories, welfare works, and creation of a council of sages from many regions.
• Kharavela supported all schools of thought, repaired temples, and showed the Indian ethos of fairness and inclusivity.

Kingdoms and Life in the South

From the 2nd or 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE, south India saw the rise of the Cheras, Cholas, and Pandyas.

Chera, Chola, Pandya

• These kingdoms competed for control but boosted trade and culture.
• They remained independent even during the Maurya Empire, as noted in Ashoka’s edicts.
• Kharavela claimed to defeat a south Indian alliance, but he did not invade the south.
• The period is called the Sangam Age, named after Sangam literature, poems by poets in assemblies (sangha).
• Sangam literature, the oldest in south India, includes poems about love, heroism, and generosity, giving insights into society and culture.

The Cholas

• The Cholas ruled parts of south India from the 3rd century BCE to the 13th century CE.
• King Karikala defeated the Cheras and Pandyas, becoming a powerful ruler.
• Karikala built the Kallanai (Grand Anicut), a water diversion system on the Kaveri River, to irrigate the delta, making it the “rice bowl of the South.”
• The Kallanai, still in use, supports farming in Tamil Nadu.
• The Chola capital, Puhar (Kaveripattinam), was a rich trading city.

Silappadikaram: The Tale of the Anklet

• Silappadikaram, an epic from the Sangam Age, tells the story of Kannagi and her husband Kovalan in the Chola city of Puhar.

Statue of Kannagi, Chennai

• Kovalan left Kannagi for a dancer, lost his wealth, and returned to her. She forgave him, and they moved to Madurai (Pandya capital).
• Kovalan was wrongly accused of theft while selling Kannagi’s anklet and executed by the Pandya king.
• Kannagi proved his innocence with her second anklet, and the king died of shock.
• Kannagi cursed Madurai, and the city was destroyed by fire. She then went to the Chera kingdom, where she was worshipped as a goddess.
• The story highlights justice and a ruler’s duty to protect it, showing life in the Chola, Pandya, and Chera kingdoms.

The Cheras

• The Cheras, also called Keralaputra, ruled western Tamil Nadu and Kerala, with their capital at Vanji (Karur).

Coins under Chera Kings

• They shaped the region’s culture and economy, supporting Sangam poets and Tamil literature.
• The Cheras traded spices, timber, ivory, and pearls with the Roman Empire and West Asia.
• Their coins featured a royal emblem, showing their identity.

The Pandyas

• The Pandyas ruled parts of Tamil Nadu, with their capital at Madurai, from several centuries BCE.
• They were a prosperous kingdom with strong administration, as noted by Megasthenes in his book Indika.
• The Pandyas traded pearls and other goods with the Greeks, Romans, and within India (Kharavela mentioned their pearls).
• They were a major naval power in the subcontinent.
• Pandya kings cared for their people’s welfare and supported all schools of thought, as recorded in inscriptions.
• Later Pandyas contributed to art, architecture, and prosperity.

Invasions of the Indo-Greeks

After Alexander’s campaign, his satraps in northwest India became independent, forming the Indo-Greeks.

Heliodorus Pillar Near Vidisha

• After the Maurya Empire’s fall, the Indo-Greeks took control of northwestern, northern, and central India.
• They adopted Indian culture, blending Greek and Indian styles in governance, art, and daily life.
• The Heliodorus pillar near Vidisha, built by an Indo-Greek ambassador, praises Vasudeva as the “god of gods” and lists virtues like self-restraint, charity, and consciousness.
• Indo-Greek coins of gold, silver, copper, and nickel showed kings, Greek deities, or Indian deities like Vasudeva-Kṛishna and Lakshmi.
• Their rule ended with invasions by the Shakas (Indo-Scythians).

The Emergence of the Kushanas

The Kushanas, from Central Asia, entered India in the 2nd century CE. Their empire stretched from central Asia to northern India, influencing the subcontinent’s history.

Headless Statue of King Kanishka

• King Kanishka promoted art and culture when not fighting wars.
• Kushana coins showed Kanishka as “King of Kings,” with Buddha or Shiva and Nandi, reflecting support for multiple beliefs.
• They controlled parts of the Silk Route, boosting trade with Asia and the West.
• Kushana art, like the Gandhara and Mathura schools, mixed Indian and Greek styles.
• Gandhara art (Punjab) used grey-black schist stone, showing detailed Buddha images with realistic anatomy and flowing robes.
• Mathura art (Uttar Pradesh) used red sandstone, depicting Indian deities like Kubera, Lakshmi, and Shiva with fuller figures.
• These art styles showed deities like Surya, laying the foundation for later temple architecture.

Points to Remember

• After the Maurya Empire fell, many new kingdoms formed, leading to the Age of Reorganisation.
• Foreign invasions and internal conflicts reorganized political powers.
• Cultures mixed, creating new art, architecture, and coinage styles, with Indian themes dominating.
• Sanskrit literature, like the Mahabharata and Ramayana, flourished.
• Trade grew, both within India and with other regions, boosting prosperity.

Difficult Words

• Age of Reorganisation: The period after the Maurya Empire when new kingdoms formed and competed.
• Ashvamedha yajna: A Vedic ritual where a horse roamed to claim land for the king.
• Brahmi script: An ancient Indian writing system used for inscriptions.
• Sangam literature: South Indian poems from the Sangam Age about love and societal values.
• Rock-cut architecture: Buildings carved directly into rock, like caves.
• Indo-Greeks: Greek rulers in northwest India who adopted Indian culture.
• Shakas: Indo-Scythians who invaded and ruled northwest India.
• Kushanas: Central Asian rulers who formed an empire in northern India.
• Silk Route: A trade route connecting Asia and the West.
• Gandhara art: Art style blending Greek and Indian elements, using schist stone.
• Mathura art: Indian art style using red sandstone for deities.

The Rise of Empires marks an important phase in ancient India when powerful kingdoms grew larger and stronger.

Rock Cut Caves in Barabar HIlls

• Cities like Pāṭaliputra became thriving centers of trade, culture, and politics. 
• These cities were well-fortified with walls, moats, and drawbridges to protect their people from enemies.
• Life in these cities was lively, with markets full of goods from faraway places and entertainers like acrobats and musicians bringing joy to the streets. 

Representation of Pataliputra

• The kings who ruled these empires controlled vast territories, stretching far beyond the city limits, covering many villages, towns, and smaller kingdoms.
• This chapter explores how these early empires formed, how their cities were protected and organized, and how they shaped the history of India.

What is an Empire?

An empire is a large area where a powerful ruler, called an emperor, controls many smaller kingdoms or territories. The word “empire” comes from the Latin word imperium, meaning “supreme power.”

• Smaller kingdoms kept their own rulers but were tributaries, paying tribute (money, gold, grain, or goods) to the emperor as a sign of loyalty.
• The emperor ruled from a capital, a major city for administration and economy.
• In Sanskrit, emperors were called samraj (lord of all), adhiraja (overlord), or rajadhiraja (king of kings).

Features of an Empire

• Empires were large, covering many regions with diverse people, languages, and customs.
• Emperors used warfare to conquer smaller kingdoms and expand their empire.
• They built fortified cities with moats and drawbridges for defense, especially at borders.
• Emperors controlled rivers and trade routes to gain resources and tax money.
• Trained armies with elephants, horses, and iron weapons were used to conquer, defend, and maintain control.
• Emperors allowed local rulers to govern their areas in return for tribute and loyalty.
• Emperors ensured harmony by managing diverse groups, possibly through fair laws, local governance, or cultural exchanges.

Reasons for expanding into empires:

• Desire for fame and to be remembered by future generations (posterity).
• Access to resources for economic and military strength.
• Wealth for the emperor and the empire.
  Try yourself:What is an empire?
  • A.A large area controlled by a powerful ruler
  • B.A small village with local leaders
  • C.A type of trade route
  • D.A military base
  View Solution

Trade, Trade Routes, and Guilds

Trade was key to an empire’s wealth and people’s well-being. Maintaining an army was costly (food, weapons, horses, roads, ships), requiring strong economic power.

Trade Routes

• Controlling trade routes increased the variety and amount of goods traded, boosting income and taxes.
• Traded goods included textiles, spices, gems, handicrafts, agricultural produce, and animals, sent to distant countries by land or sea.
• Guilds (shrenis) were groups of traders, craftsmen, moneylenders, or farmers who worked together.
• Guilds had a leader (often elected) and officers with good qualities, making rules for their members.
• Important trade routes were Uttarapatha (northwest to east) and Dakṣhiṇapatha (central to south India).
• Guilds spread across India and influenced trade for centuries, showing how Indian society organized itself.

Guilds were special because:

• They encouraged collaboration, not competition, by sharing resources and market information.
• They had autonomy to make their own rules, and kings did not interfere if trade grew.
  Try yourself:What was a key factor in the wealth of an empire?
  • A.Population density
  • B.Military power
  • C.Geographical size
  • D.Trade
  View Solution

The Rise of Magadha

From the 6th to 4th century BCE, Magadha (modern south Bihar) became a powerful kingdom in north India. Magadha was one of the 16 mahajanapadas, large kingdoms with assemblies.

• Kings like Ajataśhatru made Magadha a strong center of power.
• Magadha’s advantages:
  • Fertile land in the Ganga plains for farming.
  • Forests for timber and elephants for the army.
  • Iron ore from nearby hills for tools and weapons.
  • Ganga and Son rivers for trade and transport.
• Iron ploughs increased food production, and iron weapons strengthened the army.
• Surplus food allowed people to focus on arts and crafts, traded within and outside Magadha.
• In the 5th century BCE, Mahapadma Nanda founded the Nanda dynasty, uniting many kingdoms in eastern and northern India.
• The Nandas issued coins and had a large army, showing their wealth and power.
• The last Nanda emperor, Dhana Nanda, was unpopular for oppressing people, leading to the Nanda empire’s fall to the Maurya Empire.

The Arrival of the Greeks

In the northwest, small kingdoms existed along an ancient route to the Mediterranean. Alexander, a Greek king, invaded India in 327–325 BCE, aiming to rule the world.

Arrival of Greeks

• He defeated Porus, king of the Pauravas in Punjab, but faced strong resistance from local tribes.
• Greek records note that women fought alongside men in some battles.
• Alexander was wounded, and his tired soldiers refused to march to the Ganga River, so he retreated through harsh southern deserts, losing many troops.
• Alexander left satraps (governors) to manage northwest territories, who had significant power.
• In 323 BCE, Alexander died in Babylon, and his empire split among his generals and satraps.
• Alexander met Gymnosophists (Indian sages called “naked philosophers” by Greeks) and asked them riddles, impressed by their wise answers.
• This meeting showed a blend of Greek and Indian philosophies.

The Mighty Mauryas

Around 321 BCE, Chandragupta Maurya founded the Maurya Empire in Magadha, taking over the Nanda empire. With help from his mentor Kauṭilya, Chandragupta expanded the empire from northern plains to the Deccan plateau.

• He defeated Greek satraps in the northwest, uniting those areas into the empire.
• Chandragupta welcomed Megasthenes, a Greek historian, who wrote about India in his book Indika (now mostly lost).
• The Mauryas built a strong empire with lasting impacts on trade, cities, administration, art, and architecture.

The Story of Kauṭilya

• Kauṭilya (also called Chanakya or Viṣhnugupta) was a teacher at Takṣhaśhila university.
  Maurya Empire
• He advised Dhana Nanda to rule better, but was insulted and expelled from the Nanda court.
• Kauṭilya vowed to end the Nanda rule and helped Chandragupta Maurya overthrow the Nandas.
• His knowledge of politics, governance, and economics shaped the Maurya Empire.

The Rise of Chandragupta Maurya

• Chandragupta Maurya overthrew the Nandas and became ruler of Magadha, with Paṭaliputra as his capital.
• Magadha’s fertile land, trade routes, and economic system helped him expand the empire.
• With Kauṭilya’s strategies, Chandragupta defeated Greek satraps and extended his rule across northern and central India.
• He kept friendly ties with Greeks, hosting Megasthenes in his court.

Megasthenes in the court of Chandragupta MauryaKauṭilya’s Concept of a Kingdom

• Kauṭilya wrote the Arthashastra, a book on governance, economics, defense, and administration.
• He believed a kingdom should be strong, protected, and prosperous, achieved through warfare or alliances.
• Kauṭilya stressed law and order, with strict laws against corruption and punishments for harming people.
• He said a king’s happiness depends on his people’s welfare, prioritizing their interests over his own.
• Kauṭilya valued the countryside, as it was the source of food and economic activity, encouraging projects like bridges and village protection.

Kauṭilya’s Saptanga

Saptanga means “seven parts” of a kingdom. These seven parts worked together to make a kingdom stable and prosperous. As per Kautilya:

1. King (swami): The ruler who leads the kingdom.
2. Amatya: Group of councillors
3. Territory and people (janapada): The land and its population.
4. Fortified cities (durga): Strong towns for defense.
5. Treasury (koṣha): The kingdom’s wealth.
6. Army and law enforcement (danda): Forces for defense and order.
7. Allies (mitra): Friendly kingdoms for support.

The King Who Chose Peace

Aśhoka (268–232 BCE), Chandragupta’s grandson, ruled the Maurya Empire. He expanded the empire to cover most of India, except the far south, including Bangladesh, Pakistan, and parts of Afghanistan.

Figure of Ashoka at Sanchi Stupa

• During the Kalinga war (modern Odisha), Aśhoka saw massive destruction and chose peace and non-violence, inspired by Buddhist teachings.
• Aśhoka shared the Kalinga war in his edicts, showing honesty about his past.
• He sent messengers to Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Central Asia to spread Buddhism.
• Aśhoka’s edicts, written in Prakrit using Brahmi script, were carved on rocks and pillars, urging people to follow dharma (moral duties).
  Ashoka Stone Edicts
• He called himself Devanampiya Piyadasi (“Beloved of the Gods, one who is kind”).
• Aśhoka supported all sects (Buddhists, Jains, Brahmins, ajīvikas), provided medical care for people and animals, banned hunting, and planted trees and rest houses along roads.
• His edicts ensured officials were fair, avoided torture, and checked on people’s welfare every five years.

Life in the Mauryan Period

Cities like Pataliputra were centers of governance and trade, with palaces, public buildings, and planned streets. A strong tax system and active trade kept the treasury full, supporting growth.

• Officials, merchants, and artisans were key to city life.
• The Sohagaura copper plate (4th–3rd century BCE) shows the Mauryas built granaries to store grain against famines.

Sohagura Copper Plate Inscription

• Agriculture was vital, with two crops yearly due to summer and winter rains, preventing famines.
• Farmers were protected during wars, ensuring food production.
• City artisans included blacksmiths, potters, carpenters, and jewellers.
• Cities had street signs, couriers for messages, and wooden houses up to two storeys tall.
• Water vessels were kept on streets to fight fires.
• People wore cotton clothes (lower garment to the knees, upper garment over shoulders) and leather shoes with designs.

Try yourself:

What type of garments did people in the Mauryan period typically wear?

• A.Linen dresses and slippers
• B.Woolen coats and boots
• C.Silk robes and sandals
• D.Cotton clothes and leather shoes

View SolutionSome Contributions of the Mauryas

• The Mauryas left a lasting legacy in art, architecture, and governance.
• They strengthened trade routes, used coins widely, and built well-planned cities.
• Their administration system was advanced, with officials ensuring fairness and welfare.

Life and People

Mauryan society included farmers, artisans, merchants, and performers like street acrobats who entertained with plays and dances. Artefacts show people’s lives:
Terracota Figurine of Female Diety

• Terracotta figurines of dancing girls and deities with elaborate headdresses and jewellery.
• Figurines of the Saptamatrikas (seven mother goddesses), a tradition still followed.
• A terracotta horse head with a designed bridle, showing skilled craftsmanship.

Art and Architecture

• Mauryan art and architecture were highly advanced.
• Sarnath pillar capital: Four lions (symbolizing royal power) and a dharmachakra (wheel of dharma) became India’s national emblem with the motto satyameva jayate (“truth alone triumphs”).
  Four Lions
• Sanchi Stūpa: One of India’s oldest stone structures, originally brick, enlarged with stone, built by Aśhoka for worship.
  Sanchi Stupa
• Dhauli elephant sculpture: A rock carving symbolizing the Buddha’s qualities, near an Aśhoka edict.
• Mauryas built stūpas, chaityas, and viharas for worship, study, and meditation.

The Fragile Nature of Empires

Empires are strong but fragile and often fall apart. Here are the Reasons for decline of Empires

• Regions wanting independence due to heavy tribute demands.
• Weak rulers after strong ones, leading local kings to stop paying tribute.
• Large empires are hard to control, with far-off areas breaking away first.
• Economic crises from droughts or floods weaken empires.
• Empires bring unity and prosperity by reducing wars but are built through war and force, making them unstable.
• The Maurya Empire lasted 50 years after Aśhoka’s death but broke apart as smaller kingdoms became independent by 185 BCE.

Timeline of Empires

Points to Remember

• An empire is a large area of smaller kingdoms ruled by an emperor, expanded for fame, power, and resources.
• India’s first empires grew in areas with natural resources, rivers, and trade goods.
• Alexander’s campaign in northwest India had little political impact but started Indo-Greek cultural contacts.
• The Mauryas built a vast empire with lasting impacts on trade, cities, administration, art, and architecture.
• Aśhoka promoted dharma and showed himself as a kind ruler through his edicts.

Difficult Words

• Empire: A large area of smaller kingdoms ruled by an emperor.
• Tributary: A kingdom that pays tribute to an emperor as a sign of loyalty.
• Guild: A group of traders or craftsmen who work together and make their own rules.
• Satrap: A governor of a province in Greek or Persian empires.
• Edict: An official order or announcement by a king.
• Dharma: Moral duties, truth, and living in harmony with the universe.
• Prakrit: A common language in ancient India, used in Aśhoka’s edicts.
• Brahmi: An ancient script, the root of many Indian scripts.
• Saptanga: Kauṭilya’s seven parts of a kingdom (king, territory, cities, treasury, army, allies).
• Arthashastra: Kauṭilya’s book on governance and economics.
• Dharmachakra: Wheel of dharma, symbolizing Buddha’s teachings.
• Stūpa: A dome-shaped structure housing sacred relics, used for worship.

India’s Second Urbanisation

After the decline of the Indus or Harappan civilization around the early 2nd millennium BCE, urban life in India disappeared for nearly a thousand years.

Ruins of a major structure at Rajagriha

• Cities were abandoned or people reverted to village life as the elaborate urban systems—like markets, administration, specialized occupations, sanitation, and writing—vanished. This marked the end of India’s ‘First Urbanisation.’
• However, in the 1st millennium BCE, a new phase of urban growth began in the fertile Gangetic plains, parts of the Indus basin, and surrounding regions. 
• This resurgence of towns and cities, known as India’s ‘Second Urbanisation,’ gradually spread across the subcontinent and laid the foundation for new political and social systems.
• Archaeological findings and ancient texts from the late Vedic, Buddhist, and Jain traditions help us understand this important transformation. 
• In this chapter, we will explore the emergence of janapadas and mahājanapadas, their governance systems, and their crucial role in India’s early history of cities and states.

What are Janapadas and Mahājanapadas?

Towards the end of the 2nd millennium BCE, people in north India formed groups or clans with shared language and customs, settling in areas called janapadas (meaning “where people set foot”). By the 8th or 7th century BCE, some janapadas merged to form larger states called mahajanapadas.

Map of 16 Mahajanpadas

• Each janapada was led by a raja (ruler) and tied to a specific territory.
• Ancient texts list 16 mahajanapadas, stretching from Gandhāra (northwest) to Anga (east) and Aśhmaka (central India near the Godavari River).
• Some smaller janapadas continued independently, and there may have been more mahajanapadas.
• Powerful mahajanapadas included Magadha (Bihar), Kosala (Uttar Pradesh), Vatsa, and Avanti (Madhya Pradesh).
• Their capitals, like Rajagriha (Magadha) and Kauśhāmbī (Vatsa), were large, fortified cities with moats and narrow gateways for defense.
• Many of these ancient capitals, about 2500 years old, are still cities today.
  Try yourself:What does the term ‘janapada’ mean?
  • A.A large state
  • B.A type of ruler
  • C.Where people set foot
  • D.A fortified city
  View Solution

Many mahajanapadas were in the Ganga plains because:

• The land was fertile for agriculture.
• Iron ore in nearby mountains helped make tools and weapons.
• New trade networks connected regions.

Fertile Ganga Plains heped Mahajanpadas to growEarly Democratic Traditions

Each janapada had a council called sabhā or samiti, where elders discussed clan matters. The raja was expected to follow the council’s advice, not rule alone. Some texts say an unfit ruler could be removed by the assembly, though this wasn’t a fixed rule.

Mahajanapadas had two types of governance:

• Monarchies: The raja was the main authority, supported by ministers and an assembly. His role was passed to his son (hereditary). He collected taxes, maintained law, built fortifications, and kept an army. Examples: Magadha, Kosala, Avanti.
• Ganas or Sanghas: In some, like Vajji and Malla, the sabhā or samiti had more power, making decisions by discussion or voting, even choosing the raja. These were called early republics, among the world’s first democratic systems.

More Innovations

The janapadas and mahajanapadas brought big changes to Indian society:

New Schools of Thought:

• Late Vedic, Buddhist, and Jain teachings spread through scholars, monks, and nuns traveling across India or people on pilgrimages.

Art: 

• Indian art improved and grew, setting the stage for more growth during later empires.

Iron Metallurgy:

• By the late 2nd millennium BCE, iron tools became common, improving farming on a larger scale.
• Iron made better, lighter, and sharper weapons (swords, spears, arrows) than bronze.
• Some mahajanapadas fought wars, though how often or intense is unclear. Wars and alliances led to new kingdoms and empires.

Coins:
Punch Marked Coins

• Growing trade led to the first use of coins in India.
• Early coins, called punch-marked coins, were made of silver with symbols stamped on them. Later, coins used copper, gold, and other metals.
• Each mahajanapada issued its own coins, but coins were also traded between regions and with other countries.

The Varna–Jāti System

As societies grew complex, they divided into groups based on jobs or class to organize work. In India, society was organized by two systems: jāti and varna.

Varna System

• The English word caste (from Portuguese “casta”) is used for jātis, varnas, or the whole system, depending on scholars.
• Early on, people could change jobs if needed (e.g., farmers becoming traders due to drought). This flexibility helped society stay stable.
• Over time, the system became strict, leading to inequalities and unfair treatment of lower jātis or excluded groups, especially during British rule.
• The Varna-jāti system shaped Indian society but wasn’t the only way it was organized. Other systems will be studied later.
  Try yourself:What were the four varnas mentioned in Vedic texts?
  • A.Teachers, Warriors, Farmers, Artisans
  • B.Kings, Priests, Merchants, Laborers
  • C.Nobles, Scholars, Traders, Servants
  • D.Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, Shudras
  View Solution

Metal Workshop depicted at Sanchi StupaJāti:

• A group of people with a specific job, like farming, metalwork, or trade, passed down through families.
• Jātis had their own customs for marriage, rituals, or food.
• Some jātis split into smaller sub-jātis with unique traditions.

Varna: From Vedic texts, there were four varnas:

• Brahmins: Teachers and priests who spread knowledge and performed rituals.
• Kshatriyas: Warriors who protected society and fought wars.
• Vaishyas: Traders, farmers, and businesspeople who created wealth.
• Shudras: Artisans, workers, or servants who made goods or served others.

Developments Elsewhere in India

In the 1st millennium BCE, trade, pilgrimage, and military campaigns opened major routes:

• Uttarapatha: Connected northwest India to the Ganga plains and eastern India.
• Dakshinapatha: Ran from Kauśhāmbī (near Prayagraj) through the Vindhya Range to south India.
• Other roads linked to ports on the western and eastern coasts, which were busy trade centers.
• In eastern India, cities like Śhiśhupalgarh (near Bhubaneswar) grew as the capital of Kalinga, with a square layout, strong fortifications, and wide streets.
• In south India, cities emerged around 400 BCE, with some evidence of earlier trade.
• Three southern kingdoms formed: Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas.
  Cholas, Cheras, and Pandyas.
• South India was rich in precious stones, gold, and spices, traded within India and with foreign kingdoms.
• Ancient Tamil literature mentions these kingdoms and their kings.
• By 300–200 BCE, the entire Indian Subcontinent, including the Northeast, was connected, with goods, ideas, and culture moving across regions and to Central and Southeast Asia.
• Around this time, the mahajanapadas ended, leading to new developments in India.

Points to Remember

• From the late 2nd millennium BCE, janapadas formed in north and central India, led by a raja advised by an assembly of elders.
• The 16 mahajanapadas were the first organized states in the 1st millennium BCE, marking India’s Second Urbanisation, which spread from the Ganga plains to south India.
• By 300 BCE, the mahajanapadas ended, giving way to new developments.
• A network of roads connected north, south, east, and west, allowing people, goods, ideas, and teachings to travel across the Subcontinent.

Difficult Words

• Second Urbanisation: The growth of new cities in India starting in the 1st millennium BCE after the Harappan Civilisation.
• Janapada: A territory where a clan or group settled, led by a raja.
• Mahajanapada: A larger state formed by merging janapadas, with fortified cities.
• Raja: A ruler or king of a janapada or mahajanapada.
• Sabha/Samiti: A council of elders that advised the raja or made decisions.
• Monarchy: A system where a raja or king has the main power, passed to his son.
• Gana/Sangha: A democratic system where the council chose the raja and made decisions.
• Iron Metallurgy: The technique of making tools and weapons from iron.
• Punch-marked Coins: Early silver coins with symbols stamped on them, used for trade.
• Jati: A group of people with a specific job, passed down through families.
• Varna: Four groups in Vedic society: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras.
• Caste: A term for jātis, varṇas, or the whole social system, from Portuguese “casta.”
• Uttarapatha: A trade route connecting northwest to eastern India.
• Dakshinapatha: A route from central India to the south.

IntroductionIndia’s climate is one of the most diverse and complex in the world. It is shaped by various factors that create different weather patterns across the vast country. In this chapter we will explore:
Diverse Climate

• Why India’s climate is diverse.
• What monsoons are.
• How climate affects the economy, culture, and society.
• How understanding climate helps prepare for natural disasters.
• An explanation of climate change and its consequences.

Weather, Seasons, and the Climate

Weather is the daily condition of the atmosphere, like rain, sunshine, or wind, and it changes often. Climate is the average weather pattern in an area over many years (decades). Seasons are periods in a year, like spring, summer, autumn, and winter, that repeat annually.

Weather of India

• Most parts of the world have four main seasons—spring, summer, autumn, and winter.
• In India, besides these, there is a special season called the monsoon or rainy season, making a total of five main seasons.
• Traditionally, India divides the year into six seasons or ritus: vasanta (spring), grishma (summer), varsha (rainy), sharad (autumn), hemanta (pre-winter), and shishir (winter).
• Each season has festivals, like Vasanta Panchami in spring or Sharad Purnima in autumn.
• The weather changes with each season—for instance, it is hot and dry in summer, and humid and rainy during the monsoon. The seasonal pattern in a region forms a key part of its climate.
• Plants, animals, and humans all adjust to these seasonal rhythms. Crops grow in specific seasons, many trees shed their leaves or change colors in autumn, and animals grow thick fur to survive the cold winter months.
• While climate generally remains stable over long periods, scientists have noted changes in recent decades, with many of these changes caused by human activities.

​

Try yourself:

What is the average weather pattern in an area over many years called?

• A.Monsoon
• B.Season
• C.Climate
• D.Weather

View SolutionTypes of Climates in India

India is a land of diverse climates, varying greatly across different regions:

Himalayan Mountains (North):

• Have an alpine climate with cold, snowy winters and cool summers.
• The term “alpine” originates from the Alps mountains in Europe.
• This region requires the thickest clothing in India due to cold weather.

Lower Himalayas and Hill Areas:

• Experience a temperate climate with moderately cold winters and mild summers.
• Popular for many hill stations where people visit to escape the heat of the plains.

Northern Plains:

• Have a subtropical climate with very hot summers and cold winters.
• This region is the main area for growing wheat.

Thar Desert (West):

• Characterized by an arid climate with extremely hot days, cool nights, and very little rainfall.
• Inhabitants have developed unique methods to collect and conserve water.

Thar DesertWestern Coastal Strip:

• Receives heavy rainfall during the monsoon months.
• Has a tropical wet climate that supports the cultivation of rice and spices.

Central Deccan Plateau:

• Experiences a semi-arid climate with hot summers, mild winters, and moderate rainfall during the rainy season.

Eastern India and Southern Peninsula:

• Experience a tropical climate with mild winters and distinct wet and dry periods controlled by monsoon winds.

​

Try yourself:

What type of climate is found in the Thar Desert?

• A.Temperate
• B.Tropical wet
• C.Alpine
• D.Arid

View SolutionFactors Determining the Climate

Several factors shape India’s climates, including global, regional, and local ones:a) Latitude:

• Latitude measures distance from the Equator. Near the Equator (low latitudes), it’s hot; near the poles (high latitudes), it’s cold.

Effect of Latitude

• At the Equator, the sun’s rays hit directly, focusing heat on a small area. At the poles, rays are slanted, spreading heat over a larger area and passing through more atmosphere, reducing heat.
• In India, Kanyakumari and Nicobar Islands (near Equator) are warm year-round, while Srinagar (farther north) is cooler.

b) Altitude:

• Higher places like hill stations (e.g., Ooty, Shimla) are cooler than lowlands.
• Temperature drops as altitude increases because air is less dense and farther from the Earth’s warm surface.
• Himalayan peaks are so high they stay below freezing, keeping snow year-round.
• Example: Ooty (10–25°C in summer) is cooler than Coimbatore (25–38°C) at the same latitude due to higher altitude.

c) Proximity to the Sea:

• Coastal areas have milder temperatures because the sea keeps summers cooler and winters warmer.

Distance from Sea

• Inland areas have extreme temperatures (hotter summers, colder winters).
• Example: Mumbai (coastal, 32°C summer, 18°C winter) has a smaller temperature range (14°C) than Nagpur (inland, 44°C summer, 10°C winter, 34°C range).

d) Winds:

• Winds carry warm or cool air, affecting temperature and humidity.

Winds

• Hot, dry winds from Arabian deserts cause heat waves in Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Madhya Pradesh in summer.
• Cold winds from the Himalayas bring cold waves to northern foothills in winter.
• Sea winds bring moisture, leading to rainfall.

e) Topography:

• The shape of the land affects climate. The Himalayas and Karakoram block cold desert winds from Central Asia.
• The flat Thar Desert has no protection from hot, dry winds.
• The Western Ghats influence monsoon rainfall.

​​​​What is Microclimate?

• A small area’s climate that differs from the surrounding region.
• Examples: enclosed valleys, forests, or urban heat islands (cities with many buildings and little greenery that trap heat).
• Microclimates affect local plants, animals, crops, and human health.

​

Try yourself:

What is a microclimate?

• A.A seasonal change in temperature
• B.A climate experienced only in forests
• C.A type of weather pattern in urban areas
• D.A small area’s climate that differs from the surrounding region

View SolutionThe Monsoons

The monsoon season is vital for India, filling rivers, watering soil, and growing crops. The word “monsoon” comes from Arabic “mausim” (season) and refers to seasonal winds over the Indian Ocean and South Asia. Monsoons happen because land heats and cools faster than the ocean, creating pressure differences that drive winds.

Monsoons 

Summer Monsoon(Southwest Monsoon):

• In summer, the Asian landmass heats up, creating a low-pressure system.
• Cooler, high-pressure ocean air flows to the land, carrying moisture that falls as heavy rain.
• Starts in early June at India’s southern tip, reaching the whole country by mid-July.
• The Western Ghats block winds, causing heavy rain on their western slopes but less on the Deccan Plateau.

Winter Monsoon(Northeast Monsoon):

• In winter, the land cools faster, creating a high-pressure system, while the ocean stays warmer with lower pressure.
• Winds blow from land to sea, bringing dry weather to most of India.
• Some winds over the Bay of Bengal pick up moisture, causing rain in east and south India.

Some Interesting Facts on Monsoon in India​

• Mawsynram in Meghalaya gets the world’s highest rainfall, about 11,000 mm yearly.
• Monsoons inspire music, like ragas Meghamilhar and Amruthavarshini.
• Traditional knowledge predicts monsoons, e.g., fish surfacing on the Konkan coast or Golden Shower trees blooming 50 days before rain.

Climate and Our Lives

Climate shapes our culture, economy, and daily life. Many Indian festivals, like Baisakhi and Onam, are tied to seasons and farming, celebrating harvests or rain.

Harvest Festivals of IndiaClimate affects the economy:

• A monsoon failure (poor rainfall) hurts farming, reduces food supply, raises prices, and forces workers to move to cities.
• Industries need predictable weather and water to function.
• Traditional dances, songs, and rituals are linked to seasons and rain, passed down by elders.

Climates and Disasters

India’s diverse climates can cause extreme weather, leading to natural disasters like cyclones, floods, landslides, and forest fires.

Disasters

a) Cyclones:

• Common on the eastern coast, caused by intense low-pressure systems over the sea.
• Moist sea air forms clouds that rotate around a calm center called the eye of the cyclone.
• They destroy homes, trees, and infrastructure, and cause soil erosion.
• The India Meteorological Department (IMD) tracks cyclones to warn people.
• The National Disaster Response Force (NDRF) helps with rescue during cyclones.

b) Floods:

• Happen when water overflows onto dry land, often during monsoons in states like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, and Assam.
• Caused by heavy rain, overflowing rivers, or poor drainage in cities.
• In the Himalayas, glacial bursts from melting glaciers or heavy rain cause floods.
• Example: In 2013, Uttarakhand’s Kedarnath floods from a glacial burst killed about 6,000 people and destroyed villages.

c) Landslides:

• Sudden collapse of rock or soil in hilly areas like Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, and the Western Ghats.
• Triggered by heavy rain, earthquakes, or human activities like deforestation or poor construction.

d) Forest Fires:

• Uncontrolled fires in forests or grasslands, common in Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, and the Western Ghats.
• Caused by dry weather, droughts, high winds, or human carelessness.
• They destroy forests, harm wildlife, pollute air, and displace people.
  ​Try yourself:What common natural disaster is caused by intense low-pressure systems over the sea?
  • A.Forest Fires
  • B.Cyclones
  • C.Landslides
  • D.Floods
  View Solution

Climate Change

Climate change is a long-term shift in climate patterns, like changes in temperature or rainfall. In the past, it was caused by natural processes, but since the 19th century, human activities drive it.

Pollution

Main causes:

• Burning fossil fuels (coal, oil, gas) releases greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide (CO₂).
• Deforestation removes trees that absorb CO₂.
• Harmful industrial practices and wasteful consumption.

Effect of Greenhouse gases:

Effect of Greenhouse gases

• Greenhouse gases trap heat, causing global warming, which disrupts climate patterns.
• In India, temperatures rose 1–3°C above normal in early 2025, shortening winter and affecting farming and small industries.
• Consequences include more extreme weather, crop failures, and challenges for communities.

Solutions: 

• Solutions include mitigation (reducing emissions, planting trees, using renewable energy) and building resilience to adapt to changes.
• Governments promote sustainable practices, but economic growth often conflicts with these efforts.

Points to Remember

• India’s diverse climate is shaped by its geography, including mountains, deserts, and plateaus.
• Weather changes daily, seasons repeat yearly, and climate is a long-term pattern.
• Factors like latitude, altitude, proximity to the sea, winds, and topography determine climate.
• Monsoons are crucial for farming, bringing rain in summer and in some areas during winter.
• Climate affects culture, festivals, farming, and the economy.
• Understanding climate helps prepare for natural disasters like cyclones, floods, landslides, and forest fires.
• Climate change is causing extreme weather and is driven by human actions, like burning fossil fuels.

Difficult Words

• Climate: The average weather pattern in an area over many years.
• Seasons: Periods in a year, like summer or winter, that repeat annually.
• Monsoon: Seasonal winds that bring heavy rain, especially in summer.
• Latitude: Distance from the Equator, affecting how hot or cold a place is.
• Altitude: Height above sea level, making higher places cooler.
• Topography: The shape and features of the land, like mountains or plains.
• Microclimate: A small area’s unique climate, different from nearby areas.
• Cyclone: A storm with strong winds and rain caused by a low-pressure system.
• Flood: Water overflowing onto dry land, often from heavy rain.
• Landslide: Sudden collapse of rock or soil in hilly areas.
• Forest Fire: Uncontrolled fire in forests or grasslands.
• Climate Change: Long-term shifts in climate patterns, often caused by human actions.
• Fossil Fuels: Energy sources like coal, oil, and gas formed from ancient plants and animals.
• Greenhouse Gases: Gases like CO₂ that trap heat, causing global warming.

Weather and Its Elements

Weather affects our daily lives in many ways, such as deciding what clothes to wear. For example:

• Winter calls for warm clothes.
• Summer calls for cool clothes.

Weather and Seasons

This chapter explains how we measure and monitor weather and why weather predictions are important. Weather predictions help us prepare for events like:

• Heavy rain
• Storms
• Droughts
• Heat waves

Understanding weather also helps people like farmers, pilots, sailors, and governments plan and stay safe.What is Weather?

Weather refers to the condition of the Earth’s atmosphere at a specific time and place. We describe weather using words like hot, cold, rainy, cloudy, humid, snowy, or windy.

• Atmosphere: The atmosphere is a layer of gases or air surrounding the Earth.
• Troposphere: This is the lowest layer of the atmosphere where all weather happens. It is 6–18 km thick, with it being thinner at the poles and thicker in the tropics. All plants, animals, and humans live in this layer. 

Troposphere

• The five main elements of weather are:
  1. Temperature: How hot or cold the air is.
  2. Precipitation: Water falling from the sky, like rain, snow, sleet, or hail.
  3. Atmospheric Pressure: The weight of the air pressing down on the Earth’s surface.
  4. Wind: The movement of air, including its speed and direction.
  5. Humidity: The amount of water vapor (gaseous water) in the air.

• Since people experience weather differently (e.g., cold in Chennai may feel pleasant in Kashmir), we need standard ways to measure these elements.
• People have long observed nature to predict weather, like birds flying low, ants moving eggs, frogs croaking, or pine cones closing before rain.
• In India, traditional methods are still used to predict the monsoon.

Let’s Revise

Q: What is the troposphere and why is it important?  View Answer

Q: What are the five main elements used to describe weather?  View Answer
Weather Instruments

Scientists use special instruments to measure these elements of weather accurately.

a) Temperature:

• Measured using a thermometer, which shows how hot or cold it is.

Clinical Thermometer

• Types include clinical and laboratory thermometers, using Celsius (°C) or Fahrenheit (°F) scales (e.g., 15°C = 59°F).
• Some thermometers measure ambient temperature, while others record maximum and minimum temperatures in a day.
• Digital thermometers are more precise and store more data.
  Useful statistics include:
• Range: Maximum temperature minus minimum temperature in 24 hours.
• Mean daily temperature: (Maximum + Minimum) ÷ 2.

b) Precipitation:

• Measured using a rain gauge, which collects rainwater in a cylinder through a funnel.
  Rain Gauge
• A scale measures the depth of water (e.g., 5 mm of water means 5 mm of rainfall).
• For snow, it is melted before measuring.

c) Atmospheric Pressure:

• The weight of air pressing down, felt as “heavy” weather before storms.
• Atmospheric Pressure is higher near sea coasts and lower in mountains, where air is thinner with less oxygen, causing breathlessness at high altitudes.
• Low pressure can form a depression or low-pressure system, leading to storms or cyclones.
• Measured using a barometer in millibars (mb). Normal pressure at sea level is about 1013 mb; below 1000 mb indicates a depression.
  Barometer
• Important for people like mountaineers or soldiers at high altitudes (e.g., Khardung La in Ladakh at 5600 m has about 650 MB).

Let’s Revise

Q: What instrument is used to measure temperature and how does it work?  View Answer

Q: How is precipitation measured and what does a reading of 5 mm mean?  View Answer

d) Wind:

• Wind is the movement of air from high-pressure to low-pressure areas, with speed and direction.
  Movement of Wind
• Important for pilots, sailors, farmers, and weather forecasting, as it affects rain, soil drying, and seed dispersal.
• Wind vane (or weather vane) shows wind direction with a pointer and tail that turns when wind blows.
• Wind sock is a type of wind vane used at airports or industries.
• Anemometer measures wind speed with rotating cups; faster rotation means stronger wind, measured in km/h.

e) Humidity:

• The amount of water vapor in the air, affected by temperature, wind, pressure, and location.
• High humidity (e.g., in coastal Kochi) slows evaporation, while low humidity (e.g., in dry Jaipur) speeds it up.
• Measured as relative humidity: 0% (no water vapor, impossible naturally) to 100% (air saturated with water vapor).
• Dry weather is 20–40% humidity; humid weather is 60–80%.
• Measured using a hygrometer, important for food processing and museums to keep items dry.
  Hygrometer
• High humidity (e.g., 84% in Kochi) makes clothes dry slower and causes more sweating than lower humidity (e.g., 52% in Delhi).

Try yourself:

What instrument is used to measure atmospheric pressure?

• A.Thermometer
• B.Barometer
• C.Rain gauge
• D.Anemometer

View SolutionWeather Stations

A weather station combines instruments like thermometers, rain gauges, barometers, anemometers, and hygrometers to measure weather at one place. Readings are taken regularly to track and forecast weather.

Weather StationAutomated Weather Station (AWS)

• An Automated Weather Station (AWS) uses sensors to measure temperature, humidity, wind, precipitation, and pressure without human help.
  AWS at a Glacial Lake of Sikkim
• AWS is used in agriculture, aviation, navigation, and environmental monitoring for accurate, timely data.
• In 2023, an AWS was set up at a glacial lake in Sikkim at over 4800 meters to warn about weather changes.

Try yourself:

What does an Automated Weather Station (AWS) measure?

• A.Cloud cover
• B.Only rainfall
• C.Temperature and humidity
• D.Wind only

View SolutionPredicting the Weather

Meteorologists collect data from weather instruments over time to predict weather using scientific methods. Predictions are vital due to climate change, which causes more extreme weather like droughts, floods, and cyclones.

Weather Warning for India on 19 May 2024Accurate predictions help:

• Warn fishermen about stormy seas.
• Evacuate coastal areas before cyclones.
• Allow governments to prepare resources for disasters.

The India Meteorological Department (IMD), set up in 1875, issues weather warnings (e.g., a map from 19 May 2024 showed heat waves and severe weather in some states). IMD’s motto, “From the sun arises rain”, reflects how the sun heats water to form rain clouds.

IMDPoints to Remember

• Weather is described by five main elements: temperature, humidity, precipitation, wind, and atmospheric pressure.
• Special instruments like thermometers, rain gauges, barometers, anemometers, and hygrometers are used to measure these elements accurately.
• Data from these instruments help us monitor and predict the weather.
• Weather elements dominate at different times: rainfall in July, temperature in May or December, and wind during hot loo winds or forest fires.
• Weather stations, including Automated Weather Stations (AWS), provide accurate weather data and forecasts.
• Weather is linked to climate, which will be discussed in the next chapter.

Difficult Words

• Weather: The condition of the atmosphere at a specific time and place.
• Atmosphere: The layer of gases (air) surrounding the Earth.
• Troposphere: The lowest layer of the atmosphere where weather happens.
• Precipitation: Water falling from the sky, like rain, snow, sleet, or hail.
• Atmospheric Pressure: The weight of air pressing down on the Earth’s surface.
• Humidity: The amount of water vapor in the air.
• Thermometer: An instrument that measures temperature.
• Rain Gauge: A tool that measures the amount of rainfall.
• Barometer: An instrument that measures atmospheric pressure.
• Wind Vane: A tool that shows the direction of the wind.
• Anemometer: An instrument that measures wind speed.
• Hygrometer: A tool that measures humidity.
• Weather Station: A setup with multiple instruments to measure weather elements.
• Meteorologists: Scientists who study and predict weather.