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Forest play a major role in improving the quality of the environment, modifying the local climate, controlling soil erosion, regulating stream flow, supporting a variety of industries, providing a livelihood for many communities, and after recreation opportunities.

Forests

• They also provide a natural environment for wildlife and play an important role in maintaining the life support system.
• Forests have long been an integral part of human life, contributing to various aspects of our daily existence.
• The diversity within forests, such as those in the Amazon or the Western Ghats, is astounding, with some patches hosting hundreds of plant species.
• However, this rich diversity is rapidly diminishing. Between 1700 and 1995, industrialization led to the clearing of 13.9 million square kilometers of forest, representing 9.3% of the world’s forested area. 
  Try yourself:What is one of the major roles played by forests in the environment?
  • A.Providing a habitat for wildlife
  • B.Generating electricity
  • C.Producing plastic
  • D.Manufacturing cars
  View Solution

Why Deforestation?

The disappearance of forests is called deforestation. Deforestation is not a recent problem. The process began many centuries ago, but it became more systematic and extensive under colonial rule.Deforestation

Land to be Improved

• 1600 Land Use: Approximately one-sixth of India’s landmass was under cultivation.
• Current Land Use: Cultivated area have increased to about half of India’s landmass.
• Population Growth: Increased population and demand for food led to the expansion of cultivated land.
• Colonial Influence: The British encouraged the production of commercial crops like jute, sugar, wheat, and cotton.
• European Demand: Nineteenth-century Europe needed food grains and raw materials for industrial production.
• Colonial Perspective: Forests were seen as unproductive wilderness, leading to their clearance for agriculture.
• Cultivated Area Increase: Between 1880 and 1920, cultivated land increased by 6.7 million hectares.
• Impact of Expansion: Expansion of cultivation often involved clearing forests, impacting environmental balance.

Sleepers on the Tracks

In the early 19th century, England faced a timber shortage due to the disappearance of oak forests. By the 1820s, search parties explored India’s forests, leading to massive deforestation for timber export. The 1850s railway expansion further increased demand, with each mile of track needing 1,760–2,000 sleepers. By 1890, the railway network reached 25,500 km, expanding to 765,000 km by 1946. This led to large-scale deforestation, especially in the Madras Presidency, where 35,000 trees were cut annually. Indiscriminate cutting by government contractors caused severe forest loss.

Plantations

Large areas of natural forests were also cleared to make way for tea, coffee, and rubber plantations to meet Europe’s growing need for these commodities.

Plantations

• The colonial government took over the forests and gave European planters vast areas cheaply.
• These areas were enclosed, cleared of forests, and planted with tea or coffee.

Try yourself:

What was one of the major reasons for deforestation in India during the colonial period?

• A.Expansion of cultivation for commercial crops.
• B.Increase in population and demand for food.
• C.Search for alternatives to oak timber in England.
• D.Establishment of plantations for tea and coffee.

View Solution

The Rise of Commercial Forestry

In India, colonial rulers needed huge supplies of wood for railways and ships. This led to widespread deforestation. The British government got alarmed. The government invited Dietrich Brandis, a German forest expert, for advice, and he was appointed the first Inspector General of Forests in India. Brandis emphasises that rules need to be framed about using forest wealth. Brandis realized that a proper system had to be introduced to manage the forests, and people had to be the need for conservation. 

This system needed legal sanction. It was at his initiative that;

• Indian Forest Service was set up in 1864.
• Indian Forest Act was enacted in 1865
• Imperial Forest Research Institute was set up in 1906. The system they taught here was called ‘scientific forestry’.

The 1878 Act divided forests into reserved, protected and village forests. The best forests were called ‘reserved forestry’. Villagers could not take anything from these forests, even for their use. They could take wood from protected or village forests for house building or fuel.

Try yourself:Indian Forest Service was set up in the year….? 

• A.1865
• B.1864
• C.1854
• D.1884

View Solution

How were the Lives of People Affected?

1. Conflicting Views on Forests:

• Villagers: Preferred diverse forests for fuel, fodder, and other needs.
• Forest Department: Desired trees suited for construction, focusing on hardwood species like teak and sal.

2. Uses of Forest Products by Villagers:

• Nutritional: Fruits and tubers for food, especially before harvest.
• Medicinal: Herbs for medicine.
• Agricultural Tools: Wood for implements such as yokes and ploughs.
• Crafts and Daily Use: Bamboo for fences, baskets, and umbrellas; dried gourds as water bottles; leaves for plates and cups; ropes from creepers; bark for grating vegetables.
• Cooking and Lighting: Oil from mahua tree fruit.

3. Impact of the Forest Act:

• Restrictions: Villagers’ traditional practices like cutting wood, grazing cattle, and collecting forest products became illegal.
• Consequences: Increased theft of wood; bribery and harassment by forest guards; specific hardships for women collecting fuelwood.
• Corruption: Forest guards and police constables often demanded bribes and free food from villagers.

How did Forest Rules Affect Cultivation?

One of the major impacts of European colonialism was the practice of shifting cultivation or swidden agriculture. Shifting cultivation as a system of agriculture has the following features:

• Parts of forests are cut and burnt in rotation.
• Seeds are sown in the ashes after the first monsoon rains.
• The crop is harvested by October-November.
• Such plots are cultivated for a couple of years and then left fallow for 12 to 18 years for the forest to grow back.

Shifting cultivation has been practised in many parts of Asia, Africa and South America. In India, it is known by different names, such as dhya, panda, bewar, nevad, jhum, podu, khandad and kumri. The colonial government banned this practice of shifting cultivation. They felt that land used for cultivation every few years could not grow trees for railway timber.

Who could Hunt?

Hunting

• Hunting Restrictions: Forest laws banned the customary hunting of deer, partridges, and small animals for forest dwellers.
• Punishment: Those caught hunting were punished for poaching.
• Historical Context: Hunting of big game, like tigers and other large animals, was part of Indian royal culture.
• Colonial Impact: Under British rule, hunting increased significantly, leading to the near extinction of several species.
• Civilizing Mission: British saw large animals as symbols of a primitive society and believed killing them would help civilize India.
• Rewards System: Rewards were given for killing tigers, wolves, and leopards, resulting in the killing of over 80,000 tigers, 150,000 leopards, and 200,000 wolves between 1875-1925.
• Notable Figures: Maharaja of Sarguja killed 1,157 tigers and 2,000 leopards; British administrator George Yule killed 400 tigers.
• Conservation Efforts: Initially, certain forest areas were reserved for hunting; later, conservationists advocated for protecting these species rather than killing them.

New Trades, New Employment and New Services

• New Trades: Some communities transitioned from traditional occupations to trading in forest products due to new opportunities.
• Global Example: Mundurucu peoples in the Brazilian Amazon began collecting latex from wild rubber trees in response to growing rubber demand.
• Indian Context: Forest product trade has a long history in India with adivasi communities trading goods like hides, ivory, bamboo, and spices.
• Government Control: The British government monopolized forest product trade by granting European firms exclusive trading rights.
• Impact on Local Communities: Grazing and hunting restrictions led to loss of livelihoods for pastoralist and nomadic communities, some of whom were labeled as ‘criminal tribes’ and forced into factory or plantation work.
• Low Wages and Poor Conditions: Forest communities recruited for tea plantations in Assam faced low wages and harsh working conditions.
• Limited Mobility: Workers had difficulty returning to their home villages, further exacerbating their situation.

Rebellion in the Forest

Forest communities rebelled against the changes that were being imposed on them. Some of the leaders of these movements are the Siddhu and Kanu in the Santhal Parganas, Birsa Munda of Chhotanagpur, or Alluri Sitarama Raju of Andhra Pradesh.

The People of Bastar

• Bastar is located in the southernmost part of Chhattisgarh.
• The initiative was taken by the Dhurwas of the Kanger forest, where reservation first occurred.
• The new law of the Forest Act introduced by the Colonial government reserved two-thirds of the forest in 1905.
• The British sent troops to suppress the rebellion.
• It took them three months to regain control.
• A victory for the people of Bastar was that the work on the reservation was suspended and the area was reduced to half of that planned before 1910.

People of Bastar

The Fears of the People

• 1905 Proposal: The British colonial government proposed reserving two-thirds of the forest, which included stopping shifting cultivation, hunting, and collection of forest produce.
• Impact on Villagers: Villages within reserved forests were forced to work for the forest department, becoming ‘forest villages’. Other villages were displaced without compensation.
• Economic Hardship: Increased land rents, demands for free labor and goods, and famines in 1899-1900 and 1907-1908 exacerbated the villagers’ suffering.
• Resistance: Villagers, led by figures like Gunda Dhur, organized a rebellion using symbols like mango boughs and arrows. They looted bazaars, attacked colonial officials, and redistributed grain.
• British Response: The British sent troops to suppress the rebellion, leading to severe reprisals including flogging and burning of villages. Gunda Dhur evaded capture, and the rebellion temporarily halted reservation work and reduced the reserved area by half.
• Forest Reservation: After Independence, the practice of reserving forests for industrial use continued. In the 1970s, a proposal to replace natural sal forests with tropical pine for paper production was halted only after local protests.
• Comparison: Similar issues of forest reservation and local resistance occurred in other parts of Asia, such as Indonesia.

Try yourself:

What was the primary reason for the rebellion in the forests of Bastar?

• A.Loss of traditional hunting rights
• B.Forced labor for the forest department
• C.The proposal to reserve two-thirds of the forests
• D.Increase in land rents and demands for free labor

View Solution

Forest Transformations in Java

Java is famous as a rice-producing island in Indonesia. But, there was a time when it was covered mostly with forests. In Java, the Dutch started forest management. Villages existed in the fertile plains, and many communities lived in the mountains and practised shifting cultivation.

The Woodcutters of Java

• The Kalangs of Java were skilled forest cutters and shifting cultivators.
• They were experts in harvesting teak and for the kings to build their palaces.
• When the Dutch began to gain control over the forests in the eighteenth century, they tried to make the Kalangs work under them.
• In 1770, the Kalangs resisted by attacking a Dutch fort at Joana, but the uprising was suppressed.

Dutch Scientific Forestry

• Forest laws were enacted in Java.
• The villagers resisted these laws.
• Forest timber was used for ships and railway sleepers.
• The Dutch government used the ‘blandongdiensten’ system to extract free labour from the villagers.

Samin’s Challenge

• Around 1890, Samin of Randublatung village (a teak forest village) questioned the state ownership of forests.
• A widespread movement spread.
• They protested by lying on the ground when the Dutch came to survey it and refusing to pay taxes and perform labour.

World Wars and Deforestation

• World Wars led to the abandonment of forest management plans.
• Trees were cut extensively to support war needs.
• In Java during WWII, the Dutch destroyed sawmills and burned teak logs to prevent Japanese use.
• The Japanese exploited forests recklessly, forcing villagers into logging for war industries.
• After WWII, villagers expanded cultivation in formerly forested areas.
• Post-war, reclaiming forest land was difficult due to increased agricultural use.
• Ongoing conflict between forest control and agricultural expansion.

New Developments in Forestry

• Since the 1980s, a shift towards conservation rather than timber collection.
• Governments acknowledge the need to involve local communities in forest management.
• In India, dense forests have survived due to village protection through sacred groves (e.g., sarnas, devarakudu).
• Villages have taken on forest patrol duties, with households rotating the responsibility.
• Local forest communities and environmentalists are exploring new forest management approaches.

Try yourself:The Kalangs resisted the Dutch in

• A.1700
• B.1750
• C.1770
• D.1800

View Solution

Difficult Words

1. Colonialism – The policy of acquiring and maintaining colonies, typically for economic exploitation.
2. Deforestation – The action of clearing a wide area of trees.
3. Exploitation – The action of making use of and benefiting from resources.
4. Ecological – Relating to or concerned with the relation of living organisms to one another and to their physical surroundings.
5. Monopoly – The exclusive possession or control of the supply or trade in a commodity or service.
6. Surplus – An amount of something left over when requirements have been met.
7. Displacement – The forced movement of people from their locality or environment.
8. Indentured – Bound by a formal agreement to work for a specific period in exchange for passage to a new country.
9. Commercial – Concerned with or engaged in commerce.
10. Subordination – The action or state of being lower in rank or position.
11. Revenues – Income generated from normal business operations.
12. Bureaucracy – A system of government in which most of the important decisions are made by state officials rather than by elected representatives.
13. Cultivation – The action of cultivating land or crops.
14. Incentives – Things that motivate or encourage someone to do something.
15. Epidemics – Widespread occurrences of infectious diseases in a community at a particular time.
16. Eviction – The action of expelling someone from a property.
17. Prohibited – Formally forbidden by law, rule, or other authority.

Introduction

Nomads form a unique group characterized by their mobile lifestyle, continuously moving in search of livelihood. 

• Nomad people depend primarily on animal rearing. Goats, sheep, camels, and buffaloes are the main animals reared by the nomads. Some of the nomads also cultivate crops.

Sheep grazing on the Bugyals of Eastern Garhwal

• Movements: Nomads do not move randomly across the landscape but have a strong sense of territoriality. They are aware of the physical and cultural characteristics of the region of their movement.
•  Food: Pastoral nomads consume mostly grain rather than meat. They consume wheat, rice, bajra, and maize. Some of the food grains are grown by themselves, and some are arranged from the path of their movement.
• Economic life: Most of the nomadic people follow a barter system, though some use money also. They exchange animals for food or grains.
• Selection of animal: Nomads select the type and number of animals for the herd according to local cultural and physical characteristics. The choice depends on the relative prestige of animals and the ability of species to adapt to particular climates and vegetation. The camel is most frequently desired in North Africa and the Middle East, followed by sheep and goats.

In this chapter you will see how pastoralism has been important in societies like India and Africa.

Try yourself:

Which animals are most frequently desired by nomads in North Africa and the Middle East?

• A.Cows
• B.Buffaloes
• C.Camels
• D.Horses

View Solution

Pastoral Nomads and their MovementsIn the MountainsThe Gujjar Bakarwals:

• Traditionally herders of goats and sheep, known for their nomadic lifestyle.
• Migrated to Jammu and Kashmir in the 19th century in search of better pastures.
• Followed a cyclical migration pattern, moving between summer and winter grazing grounds.
• Spent winters in the low hills of the Siwalik range, where dry scrub forests provided grazing land.
• By late April, they migrated northward in groups (called kafilas) to their summer pastures in the lush green mountains of Kashmir, benefiting from the nutritious grasses.
• Returned to their winter grazing grounds by late September as the mountains became snow-covered.

A Gujjar Mandap on the high mountains in central Garhwal. 

The Gaddi shepherds: 

• Winter Grazing: Gaddi shepherds of Himachal Pradesh spent their winter in the low hills of the Shiwalik range, grazing their flocks in scrub forests.
• Summer Movement: By April, they moved north to spend the summer in Lahul and Spiti. When the snow melted and the high passes were clear, they moved to higher mountain meadows.
• Harvesting and Sowing: By September, they began their return journey, stopping in the villages of Lahul and Spiti to reap their summer harvest and sow their winter crop.
• Return to Winter Grounds:  Descended to their winter grazing grounds in the Siwalik hills, repeating the cycle annually.

Movement in Garhwal and Kumaon: 

• Migrated from Jammu to the hills of Uttar Pradesh (now Uttarakhand) in the 19th century in search of good pastures.
• Wintered in the dry forests of the bhabar region.
• In summer, moved to the high-altitude meadows, known as bugyals, where their cattle grazed on the rich alpine vegetation.

Other Pastoral nomads: 

• Other pastoral groups like the Bhotiyas, Sherpas, and Kinnauris followed similar patterns of cyclical migration.
• Seasonal movement was essential for adapting to changing climatic conditions and making the best use of available pastures in different regions.
• When pastures were depleted or unusable in one area, they moved to new regions, allowing the grasslands to recover and preventing overgrazing.

Let’s Revise 

Q: Describe the migration pattern of the Gujjar Bakarwals and explain how it was adapted to seasonal changes.  View Answer

Q: How did the Gaddi shepherds manage their livelihood through seasonal migration?  View Answer

On the Plateaus, Plains and Deserts

The Dhangars: 

• Important pastoral community with a population of approximately 467,000 in the early 20th century.
• Primarily shepherds, but some were blanket weavers and buffalo herders.
• Stayed in the semi-arid central plateau of Maharashtra during the monsoon, grazing their flocks on bajra fields.
• By October, they migrated west to the Konkan region, a fertile agricultural area with high rainfall.
• Their sheep manured the fields after the kharif harvest, preparing them for rabi crops, and in return, they received rice from Konkani peasants.
• Returned to the plateau before the onset of the next monsoon as their sheep couldn’t tolerate wet conditions.

Raika camels grazing on the Thar desert in western Rajasthan. 

The Gollas, Kurmas, and Kurubas: 

• In Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh, the dry central plateau was covered with grass inhabited by cattle, goat, and sheep herders.
• Gollas: Cattle herders.
• Kurumas and Kurubas: Sheep and goat rearers, also known for weaving and selling blankets.
• Lived near woods, cultivated small land patches, and engaged in various trades.
• Seasonal migration driven by the monsoon cycle: moved to coastal regions in the dry season and returned to the plateau during the wet monsoon.

Banjaras:Banjaras

• Well-known group of graziers found in Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and Maharashtra.
• Nomadic, traveled long distances in search of good pastures for their cattle.
• Engaged in trade, selling plough cattle and goods in exchange for grain and fodder.

The Raikas: 

• Raikas were the nomads of Rajasthan. They were divided into two groups. One group of Raikas-known as the Maru Raikas-herded camels, and another group reared sheep and goats. Cultivation and pastoralism were their primary activities. 
• During the monsoon, they stayed in their home villages where pasture was available. 
• By October, when these grazing grounds were dry and exhausted, they moved out in search of other pastures and water.

Let’s Revise

Q: How did the Dhangars of Maharashtra adapt their lifestyle to the seasonal changes in their environment?  View Answer

Q: Describe the livelihood strategies of the Raikas of Rajasthan.  View Answer

Life of Pastoral Groups

• Sustained by consideration of factors like duration in one area, water, and pasture.
• Calculated movement timing, and established relationships with farmers for grazing.
• Engaged in cultivation, trade, and herding for livelihood.

Colonial Rule and Pastoral Life 

Transformation of Grazing Lands

• Colonial state sought to transform grazing lands into cultivated farms to increase land revenue.
• “Waste Land Rules” were enacted from the mid-19th century, converting uncultivated lands (often used by pastoralists) into agricultural lands.
• Decline in pastures due to expansion of cultivation created challenges for pastoral communities.

Forest Acts

• Forests were classified as “Reserved” or “Protected,” restricting pastoralists‘ access.
• Customary grazing rights were limited, and movement within forests was regulated.
• Officials believed grazing harmed tree growth, affecting pastoralists who relied on forest forage.

Regulation of Pastoral Movements

• Forest Department permits controlled pastoralists’ entry, specifying timing and duration.
• Pastoralists faced fines if they overstayed, disrupting their traditional mobility for grazing.

Try yourself:What factors sustained the life of pastoral groups?

• A.Duration in one area, water, and pasture
• B.Access to forests, trade, and cultivation
• C.Colonial rule, forest acts, and waste land rules
• D. Dependence on seasonal crops, settled farming, and use of stored food reserves

View Solution

Waste Land Rules

Under the Waste Land Rule, uncultivated land was brought under cultivation. The basic aim was to increase land revenue because by expanding cultivation, the Government could increase its revenue collection. Crops like jute, cotton, and indigo were used as raw materials in England. So, the British government wanted to bring more and more areas under these crops.

WasteLand 

Impact on the lives of the pastoralists:

(i) After the Act, pastoral movements were restricted.

(ii) Under the Act, the grazing land was given to big landlords. Due to this, nomads’ grazing grounds shrank.

(iii) Due to shrinking grazing grounds, the agricultural stock of the nomads declined, and their trade and crafts were adversely affected.

Settlement Policies

• British officials preferred settled populations, distrusting nomadic lifestyles.
• The Criminal Tribes Act (1871) classified mobile communities as criminal, restricting their movement.

Pastoralists in India 

Criminal Tribes Act

• In 1871, the colonial government in India passed the Criminal Tribes Act. By this Act, many communities of craftsmen, traders, and pastoralists were classified as Criminal tribes. 
• They were stated to be criminals by nature and birth. Once this Act came into force, these communities were expected to live only in notified village settlements. 
• They were not allowed to move out without a permit. The village police kept a continuous watch on them. This restricted their grazing grounds. 
• Their agricultural stock declined, and their trades and crafts were adversely affected.

Taxation Policies

• The colonial government imposed taxes on various resources, including land, water, salt, trade goods, and animals.
• Pastoralists faced grazing taxes, auctioned to contractors in the mid-19th century, and later collected directly by the government.

Grazing Tax

• Imposed on pastoralists: Pastoralists had to pay tax on every animal they grazed on the pastures.
• Introduction: A grazing tax was introduced in the mid-nineteenth century.
• Tax increase: The tax per head of cattle went up rapidly, and the system of collection was made increasingly efficient.
• Contractor system: Between the 1850s and 1880s, the right to collect the tax was auctioned out to contractors.
• Profit extraction: Contractors tried to extract as high a tax as they could to recover the money paid to the state and earn as much profit as possible.
• Direct collection: By the 1880s, the government began collecting taxes directly from the pastoralists.
• Pass system: Each pastoralist was given a pass. To enter a grazing tract, a cattle herder had to show the pass and pay the tax. The number of cattle heads and the amount of tax paid was recorded on the pass.

Try yourself:

What was the purpose of implementing the Waste Land Rule in India during British colonial rule?

• A.To restrict pastoral movements and limit grazing grounds.
• B.To increase land revenue by expanding cultivation of crops like jute, cotton, and indigo.
• C.To classify mobile communities as criminal and restrict their movement.
• D.To impose taxes on various resources, including land, water, salt, trade goods, and animals.

View Solution

How Did These Changes Affect the Lives of Pastoralists? 

– Shortage of Pastures:

• Grazing lands were reduced as they were converted into cultivated fields.
• Forest reservation restricted pastoralists’ access to previously available forest pastures.

– Intensive Grazing:

• With fewer grazing areas available, pastoralists were forced to continuously graze their animals on limited land.
• Lack of movement opportunities disrupted the natural recovery of vegetation, leading to overgrazing and depletion of pasture quality.

– Decline in Animal Stock:

• Continuous grazing on diminished pastures led to a shortage of forage.
• Weakened animals faced higher mortality rates, particularly during times of scarcity and famine, further diminishing livestock numbers.

How Did the Pastoralists Cope with These Changes?

1. Reduction in Herd Size:

• Pastoralists faced with limited pasture reduced the number of cattle in their herds.
• The scarcity of grazing lands influenced their decision to downsize their herds.

2. Exploration of New Pastures:

• Pastoralists sought new grazing areas when traditional grounds became inaccessible due to various reasons, such as political boundaries.
• For example, camel and sheep herding Raikas had to find alternative places for grazing after 1947 due to new political boundaries between India and Pakistan.

3. Shift to Sedentary Life:

• Some wealthier pastoralists opted for settled life by purchasing land and abandoning their nomadic lifestyle.
• This transition included becoming settled peasants engaged in cultivation or taking up extensive trading.

4. Financial Adaptations:

• Poor pastoralists faced financial challenges and often borrowed money from moneylenders to survive.
• At times, they lost their livestock, forcing them to become laborers working in fields or small towns.

5. Adaptation and Diversification:

• Despite challenges, pastoralists adapted by changing the direction of their movement and reducing herd sizes.
• They combined pastoral activities with other forms of income to adapt to changes in the modern world.
• Ecologists argue that pastoralism remains ecologically viable, especially in dry regions and mountains.

Try yourself:

How did the reduction in available pasture affect the lives of pastoralists?

• A.It led to an increase in the quality of remaining pastures.
• B.It resulted in a decrease in the number of cattle in their herds.
• C.It allowed pastoralists to explore new opportunities for trade.
• D.It had no significant impact on the lives of pastoralists.

View Solution

Pastoralism in Africa

• Over half of the world’s pastoral population resides in Africa.
• Presently, more than 22 million Africans depend on pastoral activities for their livelihoods.
• Communities such as Bedouins, Berbers, Maasai, Somali, Boran, and Turkana engage in pastoral activities.
• The majority of African pastoralists inhabit semi-arid grasslands or arid deserts where rainfed agriculture is challenging.
• African pastoralists raise a variety of animals, including cattle, camels, goats, sheep, and donkeys.
• They derive livelihood by selling products like milk, meat, animal skin, and wool.
• Pastoralists employ diverse economic strategies, combining pastoral activities with agriculture, engaging in trade and transport, and taking up odd jobs to supplement income.

Pastoral Communities in Africa

Where have the Grazing Lands Gone?

• Colonial Partition (1885): Maasailand split between British Kenya and German Tanganyika.
• 60% Land Loss: Maasai lost 60% of their pre-colonial lands.
• Forced Relocation: Maasai were pushed into arid areas with poor rainfall.
• White Settlements: Fertile grazing lands taken over by European settlers.
• Shrinking Territory: Maasai confined to small areas in southern Kenya and northern Tanzania.
• Peasant Expansion: Colonial government promoted cultivation, converting grazing lands to farmland.
• Loss of Dominance: Maasai’s economic and political power declined due to land loss.
• Creation of Game Reserves: Large grazing areas turned into reserves like Maasai Mara and Serengeti.
• Restricted Access: Maasai were banned from reserves, losing grazing and hunting rights.
• Impact of Serengeti Park: Serengeti National Park took over 14,760 km² of Maasai land.
• Deteriorating Pastures: Overgrazing in small areas led to pasture degradation.
• Fodder Shortages: Reduced grazing lands created persistent fodder shortages.
• Feeding Struggles: Cattle suffered from lack of sufficient grazing and water resources.
• Increased Pressure: Limited land availability led to resource pressure and environmental decline.
• Pastoralists were barred from white areas’ markets and often restricted from trade, perceived as dangerous by settlers.
• Despite attempts to isolate, complete separation was impractical due to reliance on black labour.
• Territorial boundaries and restrictions significantly disrupted pastoralists’ lives, affecting both herding and trading activities.
• Pastoralists, once engaged in both activities, faced limitations on trade under colonial rule.

Try yourself:

What is the primary livelihood of over 22 million Africans?

• A.Rainfed agriculture
• B.Pastoral activities
• C.Trade and transport
• D.Odd jobs

View Solution

The Borders are Closed

• Colonial Restrictions: African pastoralists faced mobility restrictions imposed by colonial governments in the late 19th century.
• Confinement to Reserves: Pastoralists, including the Maasai, were forced to live within special reserves, limiting their movement.
• Permit System: Movement outside reserves required difficult-to-obtain permits, with punishments for violations.
• Market and Trade Restrictions: Pastoralists were banned from white-settler markets and faced limitations on trade.
• Impact on Livelihood: These restrictions disrupted pastoral and trading activities, significantly altering their way of life.

When Pastures Dry 

• Drought Effects: Drought causes cattle starvation when pastures are dry.
• Nomadic Survival: Traditional nomadism helps pastoralists find forage.
• Colonial Constraints: Colonial restrictions confined Maasai to fixed reserves.
• Decline in Livestock: Shrinking grazing lands worsened the impact of droughts.

Pastoral community in Kenya at high risk from climate change

• Confinement: Increased vulnerability, leading to cattle losses in severe droughts, with a substantial decline in the Maasai livestock population.
• 1930 Inquiry: Showed the Maasai in Kenya had substantial livestock, but severe drought in 1933 and 1934 resulted in the death of over half the cattle in the Maasai Reserve.
• Grazing Lands: Reduction in grazing lands intensified the adverse impact of droughts, contributing to a steady decline in pastoralists’ animal stock.

Not All were Equally Affected

• Impact Variance: In Maasailand, as in other parts of Africa, the impact of colonial changes varied among pastoralists.
• Social Categories: Pre-colonial Maasai society had two main social categories: elders and warriors, with elders in a ruling role and warriors responsible for defense and cattle raids.
• British Measures: The British introduced measures, appointing chiefs for sub-groups, imposing restrictions on raiding and warfare, affecting the traditional authority of both elders and warriors.
• Wealth Disparity: Chiefs appointed by the colonial government often accumulated wealth, had regular income, engaged in trade, and lived in towns, while their families managed the villages.
• Poor Pastoralists: Struggled during wars and famines, losing everything. Many had to seek work in towns, engaging in activities like charcoal burning or odd jobs.
• Social Changes: Occurred on two levels: disruption of traditional age-based distinctions and the emergence of a new divide between wealthy and poor pastoralists in Maasai society.

Let’s Revise: How did colonial policies affect the mobility and livelihood of African pastoralists like the Maasai?  View Answer

Conclusion

• Global Impact: Pastoral communities worldwide face varied impacts from modern changes.
• Movement Restrictions: New laws and borders restrict pastoralist mobility.
• Grazing Issues: Disappearing pastures and overgrazing lead to deteriorated grazing conditions.
• Drought Crisis: Droughts cause significant cattle losses.
• Adaptation: Pastoralists adjust by changing movement paths, reducing cattle numbers, and seeking rights and support.
• Modern Relevance: Pastoral nomadism is increasingly recognized as viable for many dry and hilly regions.

Difficult Words

1. Pastoralists – People who raise livestock and move with their herds in search of fresh pastures.
2. Nomadic – Moving from one place to another rather than living in one place all the time.
3. Transhumance – The practice of moving livestock from one grazing ground to another in a seasonal cycle.
4. Colonialism – The policy or practice of acquiring full or partial control over another country, occupying it with settlers, and exploiting it economically.
5. Territories – Areas of land under the jurisdiction of a ruler or state.
6. Grazing – The act of animals eating grass in a pasture.
7. Subsistence – The action or fact of maintaining or supporting oneself at a minimum level.
8. Revenue – Income, especially when of a company or organization and of a substantial nature.
9. Commercialization – The process of managing or running something principally for financial gain.
10. Fluctuations – Irregular rising and falling in number or amount; variations.
11. Encroachment – Intrusion on a person’s territory, rights, etc.
12. Tribal – Relating to a group of people who are united by ties of descent from a common ancestor.
13. Scattered – Spread or thrown over a wide area.
14. Perennial – Lasting or existing for a long or apparently infinite time.
15. Reclamation – The process of claiming something back or reasserting a right.
16. Migration – Seasonal movement of animals from one region to another.
17. Subsistence Economy – An economy in which people make just enough to survive and nothing more.

Introduction

• In spring 1945, eleven-year-old Helmuth overheard his parents having a serious conversation about the possibility of killing the family or his father committing suicide alone.
• His father, a prominent physician, feared revenge from the Allies, believing they would retaliate as the Germans did to the Jews and the disabled.
• The next day, Helmuth and his father spent their last happy moments in the woods before his father shot himself.
• Helmuth was deeply traumatized by these events and refused to eat at home for nine years, fearing his mother might poison him.
• Helmuth’s father was a Nazi and a supporter of Adolf Hitler, who aimed to make Germany a mighty power and conquer Europe.
• Nazism was a structured system of ideas about the world and politics, not just isolated actions.
• In May 1945, Germany surrendered to the Allies after Hitler, Goebbels, and his family committed suicide in April 1945.

Genocidal War

• Nazi Germany’s actions led to the mass murder of millions, including around 6 million Jews, 200,000 Gypsies, 1 million Polish civilians, and 70,000 Germans who were viewed as mentally or physically disabled, along with countless political opponents.
• The Nazis created a new method of killing, especially through gassing at extermination camps like Auschwitz.

Nuremberg Tribunal

• The Nuremberg Tribunal was set up to try Nazi war criminals for Crimes against Peace, War Crimes, and Crimes Against Humanity.
• It sentenced only eleven top Nazis to death, while many others received life imprisonment.
• Although some justice was served, the punishments were much less than the scale of their crimes. 
• The Allies aimed to be less harsh on the defeated Germany compared to the aftermath of the First World War.

Rise of Nazism

• The rise of Nazi Germany can be partly traced back to Germany’s experiences following World War I.
• This time of instability and resentment helped Nazism gain support among the German people.

Birth of The Weimar Republic

• Germany’s participation in World War I alongside the Austrian Empire against the Allies (England, France, and Russia):  
  – Germany was a powerful empire in the early 20th century.
  – Fought in World War I (1914-1918) alongside Austria-Hungary against the Allies (England, France, Russia).
• Prolonged war leading to resource depletion in Europe: 
  – The prolonged conflict drained Europe’s resources, including manpower, food supplies, and economic stability.
  – Continuous warfare caused widespread devastation, loss of lives, and economic hardships across the continent.
• The victory of the Allies with the assistance of the United States in November 1918: 
  – Germany initially occupied France and Belgium.
  – The war drained Europe’s resources and lasted longer than expected.
  – The Allies, with US support in 1917, defeated Germany and the Central Powers in November 1918.
• Establishment of a democratic constitution with a federal structure in the Weimar Republic:
  – Defeat led to the abdication of the German emperor. Parliamentary parties restructured German politics.
  – A National Assembly met at Weimar, establishing a democratic constitution with a federal structure.
  – Deputies were elected to the Reichstag (German Parliament) through equal and universal voting rights, including women.Treaty of Versailles Coming into Effect

Let’s Revise: Explain the causes and consequences of the rise of Nazism in Germany after World War I.  View Answer

• The Treaty of Versailles (1919):
  – Imposed harsh and humiliating terms on Germany after the war.- Losses included: Overseas colonies, 10% of the population, 13% of territories, 75% of iron resources & 26% of coal resources (to France, Poland, Denmark, and Lithuania).
  – Germany was demilitarized and held responsible for the war through the War Guilt Clause.
  – Forced to pay £6 billion in reparations.
  – The Allied armies occupied the Rhineland (a resource-rich region) for much of the 1920s.

Parts of Territory that Germany lost after the Treaty of Versailles

• Public Reaction:– The Weimar Republic was blamed for Germany’s defeat in the war and the humiliation of the Treaty of Versailles.
  – Many Germans viewed the new government as weak and responsible for national disgrace.

The Effects of the War

• The war had a devastating impact on Europe, affecting the continent both psychologically and financially.
• Europe changed from a continent of creditors to one of debtors.
• The young Weimar Republic was made to pay for the mistakes of the old empire.
• The republic bore the weight of war guilt and national humiliation, and was financially crippled by compensation payments.
• Germany lost its overseas colonies, a tenth of its population, 13 percent of its territories, 75 percent of its iron, and 26 percent of its coal to France, Poland, Denmark, and Lithuania.
• The Allied Powers demilitarised Germany to weaken its power.
• Supporters of the Weimar Republic, such as Socialists, Catholics, and Democrats, became easy targets for attacks in conservative nationalist circles.
• They were mockingly called the ‘November criminals’. This hostile attitude influenced political developments in the early 1930s.
• The First World War left a deep mark on European society and politics.
• Soldiers were placed above civilians, with emphasis on men being aggressive, strong, and masculine.
• The media glorified trench life, but the reality was that soldiers lived miserable lives in these trenches.
• They faced rats, poisonous gas, and enemy shelling, witnessing their ranks diminish rapidly.
• Aggressive war propaganda and national honour became central in public life.
• Support grew for conservative dictatorships that emerged after the war, while democracy struggled amid the instabilities of interwar Europe.

Political Radicalism and Economic Crisis

• The Weimar Republic was created in response to the revolutionary uprising by the Spartacist League, which took inspiration from the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia. 
• In many cities, Soviets of workers and sailors were set up, and there were calls for Soviet-style governance in Berlin. 
• Those opposed to this movement, including Socialists, Democrats, and Catholics, gathered in Weimar to form the democratic republic. 
• The Weimar Republic suppressed the uprising with aid from the Free Corps, a group of war veterans. 
• In their despair, the Spartacists later established the Communist Party of Germany. This led to a bitter divide, making it impossible for Communists and Socialists to unite against Hitler.
• Political radicalisation increased due to the economic crisis of 1923. Germany had financed much of the war through loans and was required to pay war reparations in gold, which drained its gold reserves.
• When Germany refused to pay in 1923, the French occupied the Ruhr industrial area to seize coal. 
• In response, Germany resorted to passive resistance and started printing money without restraint, resulting in hyperinflation. 
• The value of the German mark plummeted dramatically:
  • April 1923: 1 US dollar = 24,000 marks
  • July 1923: 1 US dollar = 353,000 marks
  • August 1923: 1 US dollar = 4,621,000 marks
  • December 1923: 1 US dollar = 98,860,000 marks
• This situation gained widespread attention, drawing international sympathy. This period became known as hyperinflation, a time of extreme price increases. 
• Ultimately, the Americans intervened and assisted Germany by implementing the Dawes Plan, which revised the reparation terms to alleviate the financial strain on the German people.

Let’s Revise: What led to the political radicalism in the Weimar Republic during the early 1920s?  View Answer

The Years of Depression

• The period from 1924 to 1928 brought some stability, but it was built on fragile foundations. 
• Germany’s investments and industrial recovery relied heavily on short-term loans from the USA. This support vanished after the Wall Street Crash in 1929. 
• On 24 October 1929, 13 million shares were sold in a panic, signalling the beginning of the Great Economic Depression.
• Over the next three years, from 1929 to 1932, the national income of the USA halved. Factories closed, exports fell, farmers suffered greatly, and investors pulled their money from the market. 
• The repercussions of the US recession were felt globally, with Germany being the most severely affected. By 1932, industrial production in Germany had plummeted to 40% of the 1929 level. 
• The unemployment rate soared to an unprecedented 6 million. 
• On the streets, men held signs reading, ‘Willing to do any work,’ while unemployed youths often played cards, loitered in corners, or queued at job centres.

Sleeping on the line. During the great depression, the unemployed could not hope for either wage or shelter

• As employment opportunities dwindled, some youths turned to crime, and despair became widespread. 
• The middle class, particularly salaried workers and pensioners, saw their savings erode as the currency lost its value. 
• Small business owners, self-employed individuals, and retailers suffered significant losses as their businesses collapsed. 
• They feared proletarianisation, the worry of being reduced to working-class status or, worse, becoming unemployed.
• Organised workers managed to stay afloat, but rising unemployment weakened their negotiating power. Big businesses faced crises, and farmers experienced a sharp drop in agricultural prices. 
• Women struggled to feed their children and were filled with despair. Politically, the Weimar Republic was unstable, with flaws in the constitution making it susceptible to dictatorship. 
• The system of proportional representation made it nearly impossible for any single party to achieve a majority, resulting in rule by coalitions. 
• Article 48 granted the President the power to impose emergency measures, suspend civil rights, and govern by decree. 
• Throughout its brief existence, the Weimar Republic saw twenty different cabinets, averaging just 239 days in office, often relying on Article 48. 
• Despite these actions, the crisis remained unmanageable, leading to a loss of faith in the democratic parliamentary system, which appeared incapable of providing solutions.
  Homeless Man Queuing Up for Night Shelter

Let’s Revise: How did the Great Depression impact Germany and its political stability?  View Answer

Hitler’s Rise to Power

• After World War I, Germany was in a state of chaos. 
• The Treaty of Versailles imposed severe penalties, leading to widespread anger. 
• The country faced economic instability marked by hyperinflation and high unemployment, alongside political unrest and frequent changes in government. 
• The Weimar Republic dealt with significant challenges, including cabinets lasting an average of just 239 days and a frequent use of Article 48, which allowed the President to rule by decree during emergencies, undermining democracy. This crisis in the economy, politics, and society set the stage for Hitler’s rise to power.
• Amid this turmoil, Adolf Hitler, born in 1889 in Austria, emerged as a significant figure. 
• He joined the German Workers’ Party in 1919 and later transformed it into the Nazi Party. 
• Initially, the Nazis struggled to gain popular support until the early 1930s. 
• The Great Depression in 1929 changed the landscape, causing widespread suffering and making people desperate for change. 
• During this time, Nazism evolved into a mass movement. Hitler promised jobs for the unemployed and a secure future for the youth, creating a receptive audience for his messages of hope and national renewal.
• By 1932, the Nazi Party had become the largest party in the Reichstag, aided by Hitler’s powerful speeches and the party’s effective propaganda. 
• He vowed to build a strong nation, overturn the injustices of the Versailles Treaty, and restore the dignity of the German people. 
• In this environment, Nazi propaganda cleverly portrayed Hitler as a messiah, a saviour who had come to rescue people from their troubles. 
• This image resonated with a public that had lost dignity and was suffering from economic and political crises.
• On January 30, 1933, President Hindenburg appointed Hitler as Chancellor, marking a pivotal moment in his rise to power. 
• The combination of post-war dissatisfaction, economic struggles, and the political instability of the Weimar Republic enabled Hitler to solidify his position and ultimately dismantle democracy in Germany.

Let’s Revise: What factors contributed to Adolf Hitler’s rise to power in Germany?  View Answer

Key Events in Hitler’s Rise

• Early Life and World War I experience: Born in 1889 in Austria, Hitler faced poverty early on. He joined the German Army in World War I, serving as a messenger on the front lines, rising to the rank of corporal, and receiving medals for bravery.
• Post-War Disillusionment: The defeat of Germany and the Treaty of Versailles deeply impacted Hitler, leaving him outraged by the treaty’s terms.
• Formation of the Nazi Party: In 1919, Hitler joined the German Workers’ Party, which he later transformed into the Nazi Party.
• Failed Coup and Imprisonment: In 1923, Hitler attempted to gain control of Bavaria and march to Berlin but failed. He was arrested, tried for treason, and imprisoned.
• Great Depression and Rise to Power: The economic crisis resulted in widespread hardship, making the population desperate for change.
• Nazi Propaganda and Electoral Success: Hitler was a charismatic speaker, and Nazi propaganda effectively promised a better future, including jobs and national strength. In 1928, the Nazi Party received only 2.6% of the vote, but by 1932, it became the largest party with 37% of the votes in the Reichstag.
• Political Strategy and Mass Mobilization: Hitler introduced a new style of politics that emphasised rituals and spectacle to unite and mobilise the masses. The Nazis held large rallies and public meetings, using symbols like the Swastika and the Nazi salute to create a sense of unity. Applause after speeches reinforced the spectacle of strength.

Let’s Revise: How did Nazi propaganda and political strategy help Hitler gain popular support?  View Answer

The Destruction of Democracy

• On 30 January 1933, President Hindenburg appointed Hitler as Chancellor, the top role in the cabinet.
• The Nazis had successfully gained support from conservatives.
• After taking power, Hitler began to dismantle democratic structures.
• A mysterious fire in the German Parliament in February helped his cause.
• The Fire Decree of 28 February 1933 suspended civil rights, such as freedom of speech, press, and assembly, which were protected by the Weimar constitution.
• The Weimar Republic experienced instability with twenty different cabinets, averaging just 239 days in office.
• Article 48 was misused, allowing the President to impose emergency powers.
• Hitler targeted his main opponents, the Communists, many of whom were sent to newly formed concentration camps.
• The repression of Communists was intense, with 1,440 of 6,808 arrest files in Duesseldorf alone being for Communists.
• On 3 March 1933, the Enabling Act was passed, establishing a dictatorship in Germany.
• This act allowed Hitler to bypass Parliament and rule by decree.
• All political parties and trade unions were banned except for the Nazi Party.
• The government took control of the economy, media, military, and judiciary.
• New security forces were formed, including:
  • Regular police (in green uniform)
  • SA (Storm Troopers)
  • Gestapo (secret state police)
  • SS (protection squads)
  • Criminal police
  • Security Service (SD)
• These forces contributed to the Nazi state’s reputation as a feared regime.
• People could be detained, tortured, or arrested without legal procedures.
• The police operated without accountability.

Reconstruction

• Hitler appointed economist Hjalmar Schacht to lead economic recovery.
• This resulted in full production and employment through a state-funded work programme, which included:
  • Construction of the German superhighways
  • Creation of the Volkswagen
• In foreign policy, Hitler quickly achieved significant milestones:
  • Withdrew from the League of Nations in 1933
  • Reoccupied the Rhineland in 1936
  • Unified Austria and Germany in 1938 under the slogan “One people, One empire, One leader”
  • Annexed the German-speaking Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia and later the entire country
• Hitler received tacit support from England, which felt the Versailles treaty was too severe.
• Despite Schacht’s warnings against large-scale rearmament, Hitler opted for war to address the economic crisis.
• Puppet regimes loyal to Nazi Germany were set up throughout Europe.
• By the end of 1940, Hitler had reached the peak of his power.

Try yourself:When did Hitler become the Chancellor of Germany?

• A.January 30, 1923
• B.January 30, 1929
• C.January 30, 1933
• D.March 3, 1933

View Solution

The Nazi Worldview

Understanding the link between Nazi crimes and their belief system is essential. Hitler’s worldview, which shaped Nazi ideology, was based on a strict racial hierarchy. At the top were the blond, blue-eyed Nordic Aryans, who were deemed the superior race. At the bottom of this hierarchy were the Jews, viewed as an anti-race and the main enemies of the Aryans. Other racial groups were ranked in between, based on their physical traits and perceived racial characteristics.

Influence of Darwin and Spencer on Hitler’s Racism

• Hitler’s racism was shaped by the ideas of Charles Darwin and Herbert Spencer.
• Darwin introduced concepts of evolution and natural selection, explaining the development of living things.
• Spencer contributed the idea of survival of the fittest, suggesting that only adaptable species would thrive.
• Although Darwin did not endorse human intervention in natural selection, his ideas were misused by racist thinkers to justify imperial rule over conquered peoples.
• The Nazis adopted the belief that the strongest race would survive and that weaker races would perish.
• They believed the Aryan race was the strongest and needed to maintain its purity to dominate the world.

Hitler’s Concept of Lebensraum

• A significant aspect of Hitler’s ideology was the idea of Lebensraum, meaning living space.
• He believed that new territories needed to be acquired for settlement.
• Hitler aimed to expand German borders by moving eastward, viewing Poland as a testing ground for this idea.
• Poland became the laboratory for this experimentation.
• Hitler stated, “The primary right of this world is the right to life, so far as one possesses the strength for this.”

Establishment of the Racial State

Once in power, the Nazis quickly began to implement their vision of creating an exclusive racial community of pure Germans by physically eliminating all those considered ‘undesirable.’ This included even Germans perceived as impure or abnormal, who had no right to exist under Nazi policies. The establishment of a racial state was central to Nazi ideology, as they aimed to create a society composed solely of ‘pure and healthy Nordic Aryans.’

Nazi Persecution and Racial Ideology

• Once in power, the Nazis quickly started to create their vision of a racial community of pure Germans by eliminating those they deemed ‘undesirable’. They aimed for a community of ‘pure’ Nordic Aryans, excluding anyone considered impure or abnormal. This also included Germans who were seen as unfit or abnormal, who were denied the right to exist. Under the Euthanasia Programme, mentally and physically unfit Germans were sentenced to death.

Nazi Worldview:

• Source A: Hitler believed in conquering and dominating territories based on strength and industry, viewing life as a privilege for the strong.
• Source B: Hitler was critical of Germany’s limited size, arguing for expansion to compete with other global powers.

Targeted Groups:

• Jews: Faced extreme persecution based on false racial theories, with the aim of total elimination.
• Others: Gypsies, blacks, Russians, and Poles were also seen as racial inferiors, enduring severe persecution and forced labour. Historical context includes traditional Christian hostility and medieval discrimination against Jews, which set the stage for Nazi hatred.

Timeline of Persecution:

• 1933-1938: Nazis terrorised, impoverished, and segregated Jews, forcing many to flee Germany.
• 1939-1945: Efforts shifted towards concentration camps and extermination in gas chambers, mainly in Poland.

The Racial Utopia:

• During the war, the Nazis pursued their deadly racial goals. Occupied Poland was divided into different regions. Much of northwestern Poland was annexed to Germany, forcing Poles to abandon their homes for ethnic Germans brought in from other parts of Europe.
• The remaining area was named the General Government, where Poles and other ‘undesirables’ were treated like cattle. Polish children who looked like Aryans were taken from their mothers and examined by ‘race experts’. If they passed the racial tests, they were raised in German families. If they failed, they were sent to orphanages, where most died.
• The General Government included large ghettos and gas chambers, which became primary sites for the extermination of Jews.
• Additionally, the Nuremberg Laws were established in September 1935, defining who could be considered a German citizen: only those of German or related blood would have German citizenship and enjoy the protection of the German empire.

Let’s Revise

Q: How did Hitler’s racial worldview shape Nazi ideology and policies?  View Answer

Q: What was the concept of Lebensraum and how did it influence Nazi expansionist policies?  View Answer

Youth in Nazi Germany

Hitler aimed to create a powerful Nazi society by teaching children Nazi beliefs both in school and beyond.

• Changes in Schools:
  • Schools were ‘cleansed’ of Jews and teachers who were seen as politically unreliable.
  • Children were separated by race; Jews and other ‘undesirable’ children (such as those who were physically disabled or Gypsies) were expelled.
  • Eventually, in the 1940s, these groups were taken to gas chambers.
• Nazi Schooling:
  • Textbooks were rewritten to support Nazi racial ideas.
  • Racial science was introduced, promoting negative stereotypes about Jews, even in maths lessons.
  • Children were taught to be loyal and obedient, to hate Jews, and to idolise Hitler. Sports were used to instil a sense of violence and aggression; Hitler believed boxing could make children strong and masculine.
• Youth Organizations:
  • Jungvolk: Boys could join at the age of 10.
  • Hitler Youth: Mandatory for boys aged 14; the focus was on glorifying war, aggression, and Nazism while rejecting democracy and those seen as ‘undesirable.’
  • After training, youths were sent to the Labour Service, military, or Nazi organisations.
• Formation and Control:
  • The Nazi Youth League was established in 1922 and was renamed Hitler Youth four years later.
  • All other youth organisations were systematically dissolved and banned to ensure control was consolidated.

Desirable Children that Hitler wanted to see multiplied

Try yourself:

What was one of the key beliefs that shaped Hitler’s ideology?

• A.The promotion of democracy and equality for all races.
• B.The establishment of a multicultural society.
• C.The implementation of a strict racial hierarchy.
• D.The advocacy for international cooperation and peace.

View Solution

The Nazi Cult of Motherhood

• In Nazi Germany, children were taught that women were fundamentally different from men.
• The movement for equality between men and women was seen as a threat to society.
• Boys were trained to be strong, masculine, and unemotional.
• Girls were taught to be dedicated mothers responsible for raising pure-blooded Aryan children.
• Women were expected to maintain racial purity, avoid contact with Jews, and pass on Nazi values to their children.
• Hitler stated in 1933, “In my state the mother is the most important citizen.“
• However, not all mothers received equal treatment in Nazi Germany.
• Women who had racially undesirable children faced penalties, while those with racially desirable children were rewarded.
• Rewards included:
  • Preferential treatment in hospitals.
  • Concessions in shops.
  • Discounts on theatre tickets and railway fares.
• To encourage higher birth rates, the Honour Crosses were introduced:
  • A bronze cross for four children.
  • A silver cross for six children.
  • A gold cross for eight or more children.
• Aryan women who did not follow Nazi rules faced public shame and harsh punishments.
• Those who associated with Jews, Poles, or Russians were publicly humiliated:
  • Paraded through towns with shaved heads and blackened faces.
  • Held placards saying, “I have sullied the honour of the nation.“
• Many faced jail time and lost their social standing, including their families, for this ‘criminal offence.’

Try yourself:In what ways did the First World War leave a deep imprint on European society and polity?

• A.Soldiers were put above civilians, trench-life was glorified
• B.Politicians and publicists laid stress on men to be aggressive and masculine
• C.Aggressive war propaganda and national honour were given the most support and Conservative dictatorships were welcomed
• D.All the above

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The Art of Propaganda

• Nazis used euphemisms for mass killings, calling them special treatment, final solution (for Jews), euthanasia (for the disabled), selection, and disinfection.
• ‘Evacuation’ referred to deportations to gas chambers.

Gas Chamber

• Gas chambers were disguised as ‘disinfection areas‘ and made to look like bathrooms with fake showerheads.
• Nazi ideas spread through various media:
  • Visual images.
  • Films.
  • Radio broadcasts.
  • Posters.
  • Catchy slogans and leaflets.
• Propaganda films, like The Eternal Jew, aimed to create hatred towards Jews.
• Orthodox Jews were often portrayed as vermin, rats, and pests in these materials.
• The Nazis targeted specific groups in their propaganda, claiming they alone could fix the issues facing Germany.A Concentration Camp

Ordinary People and the Crimes Against Humanity

People’s responses to Nazism in Germany varied widely:

• Many Germans accepted Nazi beliefs, adopting its language and ideas. They expressed hatred towards Jews, marked their homes, and reported neighbours they considered suspicious, genuinely believing that Nazism would lead to prosperity.
• Some organised active resistance against Nazism, risking police repression and death.
• However, most Germans remained passive observers, choosing to ignore the situation. They were often too afraid to act, protest, or stand out. Pastor Niemoeller, a resistance fighter, noted this silence in the face of Nazi crimes, regretting that people did not speak out until it was too late.
• The lack of resistance was not only due to fear. As Erna Kranz, a German who lived through the 1930s, pointed out, many people welcomed the apparent economic recovery under the Nazis, feeling downtrodden.
• In Nazi Germany, Jews suffered many forms of death even before reaching the gas chambers. The psychological torment began long before many were sent to their deaths, causing them to endure repeated suffering.

Knowledge about the Holocaust

• After the war ended and Germany was defeated, many Germans were focused on their own struggles. Meanwhile, the Jewish community wanted the world to remember the horrors and suffering they experienced during the Nazi killing operations, known as the Holocaust.
• The death toll included 6 million Jews, 200,000 Gypsies, 1 million Polish civilians, and 70,000 Germans labelled as mentally and physically disabled, along with countless political opponents.
• Following their defeat, Nazi leaders ordered the destruction of incriminating evidence in their offices by distributing petrol to their functionaries.
• During the Nuremberg Tribunal, only eleven top Nazis were sentenced to death, while many others received life sentences.

Try yourself:

What was the primary role assigned to girls in Nazi Germany according to the passage?

• A.To become aggressive and emotionally hardened
• B.To resist the Nazi regime actively
• C.To become devoted mothers responsible for raising pure-blooded Aryan children
• D.To maintain contact with Jews, Poles, or Russians

View Solution

Difficult Words

1. Weimar Republic: The democratic government founded in Germany following the abdication of Emperor Wilhelm II in 1918, which lasted until 1933 when the Nazis came to power.
2. Treaty of Versailles: The peace treaty that ended World War I between Germany and the Allied Powers, which imposed heavy reparations and territorial losses on Germany.
3. War Guilt Clause: Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles, which assigned blame for World War I solely to Germany and its allies, making them responsible for all damages.
4. Hyperinflation: A very high and typically accelerating rate of inflation, often exceeding 50% per month, leading to the rapid erosion of the real value of local currency, as the prices of all goods increase.
5. Proportional Representation: An electoral system in which parties gain seats in proportion to the number of votes cast for them.
6. Article 48: A clause in the Weimar Constitution that allowed the President, under certain circumstances, to take emergency measures without the prior consent of the Reichstag.
7. Chancellorship: The position of the Chancellor, a senior official (often the prime minister) in some countries, responsible for leading the executive branch and the government.
8. Enabling Act: A 1933 Weimar Constitution amendment that gave the German Cabinet — in effect, Chancellor Adolf Hitler — the power to enact laws without the involvement of the Reichstag.
9. Euthanasia Programme: A program during Nazi Germany aiming at the systematic killing of the mentally and physically disabled and sick, considered by the Nazis as “life unworthy of life.”
10. Lebensraum: A Nazi policy and ideology of territorial expansion, based on the notion of natural rights to land believed necessary for national survival and growth.
11. Racial Hygiene: The set of eugenic policies embraced by the Nazis to “improve” the genetic quality of a race, primarily aimed at increasing the reproduction of characteristics deemed desirable.
12. Genocide: The intentional action to destroy a people—usually defined as an ethnic, national, racial, or religious group—in whole or in part.
13. Orthodox Jews: Adherents to a traditional form of Judaism which strictly observes religious laws and practices.
14. Propaganda: Information, especially of a biased or misleading nature, used to promote a political cause or point of view.
15. Holocaust: The genocide of six million Jews and the persecution and murder of other minority and dissenting groups by the Nazis during World War II.
16. Concentration camp: A camp where people were isolated and detained without due process of law. Typically, it was surrounded by electrified barbed wire fences.
17. Proletarianisation: To become impoverished to the level of working classes.
18. Nordic German Aryans: One branch of those classified as Aryans. They lived in north European countries and had German or related origin
19. Gypsy: The groups that were classified as ‘gypsy’ had their own community identity. Sinti and Roma were two such communities. Many of them traced their origin to India. 
20. Pauperised: Reduce to absolute poverty 
21. Persecution: Systematic, organised punishment of those belonging to a group or religion
22. Usurers: Moneylenders charging excessive interest; often used as a term of abuse
23. Jungvolk: Nazi youth groups for children below 14 years of age.

Some important dates

• August 1, 1914: First World War begins. 
• November 9, 1918: Germany capitulates, ending the war. 
• November 9, 1918: Proclamation of the Weimar Republic. 
• June 28, 1919: Treaty of Versailles. 
• January 30, 1933: Hitler becomes Chancellor of Germany. 
• September 1, 1939: Germany invades Poland. Beginning of the Second World War. 
• June 22, 1941: Germany invades the USSR. 
• June 23, 1941: Mass murder of the Jews begins.
• December 8, 1941: The United States joins Second World War. 
• January 27, 1945: Soviet troops liberate Auschwitz. 
• May 8, 1945: Allied victory in Europe.

The Age of Social Change

In the previous chapter, we saw how the French Revolution ignited ideas of freedom and equality, challenging old societal structures dominated by the aristocracy and the church. Before the eighteenth century, society was mainly divided into estates and orders, with the aristocracy and church holding considerable economic and social power. This upheaval had a global impact, inspiring thinkers like Raja Rammohan Roy in India and sparking discussions about societal change.

However, not everyone in Europe supported a complete overhaul. The political landscape included conservatives, who preferred minor adjustments; liberals, who advocated for gradual reforms; and radicals, who pushed for substantial change. The meanings of these terms varied depending on the context.

Change in Society after French Revolution

This chapter will delve into the key political traditions of the nineteenth century, focusing on the Russian Revolution, a crucial event that brought socialism to the forefront of global politics in the twentieth century.

Liberals, Radicals, and Conservatives

Liberals were individuals who wanted to change society. Their main beliefs included:

• Religious Tolerance: Many European nations backed specific religions, such as Britain with the Church of England and Austria and Spain with the Catholic Church. Liberals advocated for a country that accepted all religions, opposing discrimination based on faith and defending individual rights against government actions.
• Limited Power of Dynastic Rulers: They challenged the absolute power of hereditary leaders. Liberals argued for a representative government chosen by the people, governed by laws interpreted by an independent judiciary free from government influence.
• Selective Voting Rights: They believed that only property-owning men should vote, and they were not ‘democrats’ as they did not support universal voting rights for all adults or for women.

In contrast, radicals aimed for a nation where the government reflected the majority of the population. Many supported women’s suffrage movements. Unlike liberals, they opposed the privileges of wealthy landowners and factory owners. They did not object to private property but were against its concentration in the hands of a select few.

Conservatives opposed both radicals and liberals. After the French Revolution, even conservatives began to recognise the need for change. In the eighteenth century, they were largely resistant to change, but by the nineteenth century, they accepted that some change was unavoidable. They believed that the past should be respected and that change should occur gradually.

These differing views on societal change clashed during the social and political upheaval that followed the French Revolution. The various revolutionary attempts and national transformations of the nineteenth century contributed to defining the limits and potential of these political ideologies.

Socialism in Russian Revolution

Industrial Society and Social Change

Overview of Changes

This period marked significant social and economic transformations. There was a rise of new cities, growth in industrial regions, expansion of railways, and the onset of the Industrial Revolution.

• Industrialisation Problems: As industrialisation took off, many people, including men, women, and children, moved near factories. However, this progress came with serious drawbacks. Working hours were long, and wages were low. Unemployment was common, especially during times when demand for industrial goods was low. The rapid growth of towns led to urgent challenges regarding housing and sanitation.

An image of Russian Industrial Workers in the 1890s

Responses to Challenge

• Solution by Radicals and Liberals: In response to the issues caused by industrialisation, liberals and radicals collaborated to seek solutions. They believed in promoting individual effort and enterprise, as a healthy and educated workforce would benefit society. This mindset encouraged more involvement from the working class, who began to support these groups.
• Effects on the World: The ideas of radicals and liberals, alongside conservative reactions, greatly impacted the social and political landscape of the nineteenth century. The interactions and conflicts among these groups influenced revolutions and national changes, ultimately shaping the nature and limits of these political movements.

Try yourself:What did the liberals advocate for in society during the Age of Social Change?

• A.Corruption
• B.Limited power of dynastic rulers
• C.No Voting Rights
• D.None of the above

View Solution

The Coming of Socialism to Europe

Many nationalists and liberals aimed to change the governments set up in Europe after 1815. In countries like France, Italy, Germany, and Russia, they became revolutionaries, seeking to overthrow the existing monarchs. Nationalists spoke of revolutions that would create ‘nations’ where all citizens enjoyed equal rights. After 1815, Giuseppe Mazzini, an Italian nationalist, worked with others to achieve this in Italy. Nationalists in other regions, including India, read his writings.

Louis Blanc

• Robert Owen (1771-1858), a prominent English manufacturer, aimed to establish a cooperative community named New Harmony in Indiana (USA).
• Louis Blanc (1813-1882) proposed that the government should support cooperatives and replace capitalist businesses. These cooperatives would be groups of people working together to produce goods and share profits based on individual contributions.
• Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895) introduced additional ideas into this discussion. Marx argued that industrial society was fundamentally capitalist, where capitalists owned factories and profited from workers’ labour. He believed that since profits were controlled by private capitalists, workers’ conditions could not improve under capitalism.
• Marx asserted that workers needed to overthrow this system and eliminate private property. To escape exploitation by capitalists, workers should create a radically socialist society where all property was collectively managed. He was confident that workers would ultimately succeed in this struggle, leading to a future communist society. Through the revolution in Russia, socialism became one of the most influential ideas shaping society in the twentieth century.

Support for Socialism

By the 1870s, socialist ideas were spreading across Europe. An international organisation called the Second International was formed. Workers in England and Germany began establishing associations to campaign for better living and working conditions. They set up funds to assist members in times of need and demanded:

• A reduction in working hours
• The right to vote

In Germany, the Social Democratic Party gained parliamentary seats. By 1905, socialists and trade unionists had established a Labour Party in Britain and a Socialist Party in France. While their ideas influenced legislation, governments continued to be led by conservatives, liberals, and radicals.

Try yourself:

What were the main beliefs of liberals during the Age of Social Change?

• A.Religious tolerance and safeguarding individual rights against the government.
• B.Formation of a government based on majority support of the population.
• C.Opposition to the privileges of wealthy landowners and support for women’s rights.
• D.Preservation of the past and slow change in the system.

View Solution

The Russian Revolution

• The Russian Revolution marked a significant period of political and social upheaval in the Russian Empire, beginning with the fall of the monarchy in 1917. Important dates are:
  • 2nd March – Abdication of the Tsar.
  • 24th October – Bolshevik uprising in Petrograd.
  • 1918-20 – The Civil War.
  • 1919 – Formation of Comintern.
  • 1929 – Beginning of Collectivisation.

The Russian Empire in 1914

• In 1914, Tsar Nicholas II ruled over Russia and its large empire. This included areas around Moscow, as well as present-day Finland, Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, parts of Poland, Ukraine, and Belarus. The empire stretched to the Pacific Ocean and included today’s Central Asian nations, along with Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan. 
• The main religion was Russian Orthodox Christianity, which evolved from the Greek Orthodox Church, but there were also followers of Catholicism, Protestantism, Islam, and Buddhism.
• Russia adhered to the Julian calendar until 1st February 1918. The country then switched to the Gregorian calendar, which is the standard today. 
• The Gregorian dates are 13 days ahead of the Julian dates, meaning the ‘February’ Revolution happened on 12th March, and the ‘October’ Revolution occurred on 7th November.

Political Context

• Russia was an autocracy. Unlike many other European leaders at the beginning of the 20th century, the Tsar was not accountable to a parliament. This lack of political representation played a significant role in the unrest that led to the revolution.

Economy and Society

• Agriculture Dominance: In the early 20th century, around 85% of the population worked in agriculture. Russia had a larger share of people reliant on farming compared to most European nations.
• Industrial Development: Industrialisation was primarily found in cities like St Petersburg and Moscow. Both craftsmen and large factories existed side by side, with significant factory growth in the 1890s. Russia became a leading exporter of grain. The expansion of the railway system and foreign investments during the 1890s boosted industrial growth, with coal production doubling and iron and steel output increasing fourfold.
• Working Conditions: Most industries were owned by private individuals. The government attempted to ensure minimum wages and limit working hours, but factory inspectors often faced challenges enforcing these rules. Many workers dealt with long hours, and living conditions varied greatly.
• Social Divisions Among Workers: The year 1904 was particularly harsh for workers in Russia, with prices for essential goods rising rapidly, leading to a 20% drop in real wages. Despite social divisions, workers often united to strike over disputes with employers regarding dismissals or working conditions.
• Peasant Conditions: Many unemployed peasants relied on charitable kitchens for food and lived in poor conditions. The dire living situations of peasants contributed to the social unrest that spurred the revolution.
• Impact of World War I: Initially, the war was popular in Russia, with people supporting Tsar Nicholas II. However, as the conflict dragged on, the Tsar’s refusal to consult the main political parties in the Duma led to growing dissatisfaction among the general population.

Russian Empire in 1914

Workers and Social Divisions

• Workers were socially divided based on their village ties, how long they had lived in cities, and their skill levels.
• These divisions showed in their clothing and behaviour.
• Women made up 31% of the factory workforce but earned less than men.
• Some workers formed associations to support each other during times of unemployment or financial struggles, but these were few in number.
• Despite these divisions, workers came together during strikes to protest against dismissals or poor working conditions.
• Frequent strikes occurred in the textile industry during 1896-1897 and in the metal industry in 1902.

Peasants and Land Ownership

• Peasants worked the majority of the land, while large estates were owned by the nobility, the crown, and the Orthodox Church.
• Russian peasants were very religious, but they generally had no respect for the nobility, who gained their power through their services to the Tsar, not through local popularity.
• They demanded land redistribution and often refused to pay rent, with some even resorting to murdering landlords. This trend became widespread in southern Russia in 1902 and spread across the country in 1905.
• Unlike other European peasants, Russian peasants periodically pooled their land together, and their commune (mir) allocated it based on the needs of individual families.

Socialism in Russia

• Before 1914, the government in Russia banned all political parties, forcing the Russian Social Democratic Workers Party (RSDWP) to function as an illegal group.T
• he RSDWP was established in 1898 by socialists who followed Marx’s principles, organising strikes, mobilising workers secretly, and creating a newspaper.
• Some socialists viewed Russian peasants, with their tradition of sharing land, as natural socialists who could lead the revolution.
• This belief led to the formation of the Socialist Revolutionary Party in 1900, which advocated for peasant rights and land redistribution from nobles to peasants.
• The Socialist Revolutionary Party focused on issues affecting peasants, while Lenin and the Social Democrats believed peasants were divided.
• Lenin argued that differences among peasants, such as wealth and roles in labour, prevented them from being a unified revolutionary force.
• Lenin’s Bolsheviks preferred a tightly controlled, disciplined party to withstand Tsarist repression.
• In contrast, the Mensheviks supported a more open membership model like that of the German socialist movement.

A Turbulent Time: The 1905 Revolution

Autocratic Rule

• Russia was an autocracy, where the Tsar had complete power without any parliamentary checks.
• Liberals in Russia sought to change this system. Alongside the Social Democrats and Socialist Revolutionaries, they collaborated with peasants and workers during the 1905 revolution to demand a constitution.

Support for Change

• The year 1904 was especially difficult for Russian workers, as the prices of essential items rose rapidly, leading to a 20% decline in real wages.
• They received support from nationalists in the empire, such as in Poland, and from jadidists in Muslim areas who wanted to modernise Islam to improve their societies.
• During the 1905 Revolution, the Tsar permitted the establishment of an elected consultative Parliament or Duma, which was a notable response to the calls for change.

Economic Hardships and Worker Unrest

• An economic crisis in 1904 saw prices for essential goods soar, reducing real wages by 20%.
• This discontent led to protests, including a significant strike in St. Petersburg.
• In the Bloody Sunday incident, police and Cossacks attacked unarmed workers led by Father Gapon, resulting in over 100 deaths and around 300 injuries.

1905 Revolution

• The 1905 Revolution sparked widespread unrest, including strikes, student walkouts, and the formation of the Union of Unions, which called for a constituent assembly.
• The Tsar temporarily allowed the formation of a consultative Parliament (Duma) and permitted trade unions and factory committees to operate briefly.

Post-Revolution Repression

• After the revolution, the Tsar limited the Duma, dismissing the first two within months and altering voting laws to ensure a conservative majority in the third Duma.
• Political repression resumed, with the Tsar banning most political activities to silence liberals and revolutionaries.

The First World War and the Russian Empire

The Outbreak of World War I

• Central Powers: Germany, Austria, and Turkey
• Allied Powers: France, Britain, and Russia (later joined by Italy and Romania)
• Global Scope: The war was fought in Europe and overseas.

Initial Popularity and Declining Support

• At the start of the war, Tsar Nicholas II enjoyed widespread support in Russia.
• Over time, the Tsar’s refusal to consult the main parties in the Duma led to diminishing support.
• High anti-German sentiments resulted in renaming St. Petersburg (a German name) to Petrograd.
• The Tsarina Alexandra’s German origins and poor advisers, especially a monk named Rasputin, made the autocracy unpopular.

Differences in War Fronts

• The Eastern Front saw moving armies and large battles with high casualties.
• Russia faced major defeats against Germany and Austria between 1914 and 1916.
• In contrast, trench warfare defined the Western Front.

Impact of the War on Russia

• By 1917, Russia had over 7 million casualties.
• The army’s retreat caused destruction of crops and buildings, leading to over 3 million refugees.
• Severe conditions discredited the Tsar and the government.
• Russia’s limited industrial base and German control of the Baltic Sea disrupted supplies of industrial goods.
• Rapid deterioration of equipment and breakdowns in railway lines occurred by 1916.
• With most able-bodied men at war, labour shortages affected small workshops.
• Large grain supplies were sent to the army, resulting in shortages of bread and flour in cities.
• Riots over bread shortages became common by the winter of 1916.

Try yourself:

What percentage of Russia’s population was engaged in agriculture in the early 20th century?

• A.75%
• B.85%
• C.95%
• D.65%

View Solution

The February Revolution in Petrograd

• The winter of 1917 was tough for the people of Petrograd. The city was divided, with workers living in the poorer areas on the right bank of the River Neva, while the left bank had the more affluent districts, the Winter Palace, and government buildings, including where the Duma met.
• Food shortages were a major issue, especially in the workers’ areas. The winter was particularly cold and snowy. The effects of World War I had severely disrupted grain supplies, resulting in a lack of bread and flour. By winter 1916, riots over bread were common.
• Tensions rose as the government faced opposition from parliament members who wanted to maintain the elected government, while the Tsar aimed to dissolve the Duma.
• On 22 February, there was a lockout at a factory on the right bank. The next day, workers from fifty factories went on strike in support. Women were prominent in these protests; at the Lorenz telephone factory, Marfa Vasileva played a key role in organising a successful strike. In honour of International Women’s Day, women workers gave red bows to their male colleagues, motivating them.
• After the initial protests, demonstrators regrouped on the 24th and 25th. On 25 February, the government suspended the Duma, leading to a resurgence of protests on the left bank of Petrograd the next day, with people demanding better conditions.
• On 27 February, the Police Headquarters was attacked, and the streets were filled with calls for bread, wages, better working hours, and democracy. Despite government attempts to suppress the protests, the cavalry refused to attack the demonstrators. This change in loyalty was crucial; when the Imperial Russian army began to support the revolutionaries, the Tsarist regime fell apart.
• Eventually, soldiers and striking workers united to form a council called the Petrograd Soviet in the same building where the Duma convened. Military leaders urged the Tsar to step down, which he did on 2 March.
• Leaders from the Soviet and the Duma created a Provisional Government to manage the country, effectively ending the monarchy in what is known as the February Revolution. The future of Russia would be determined by a constituent assembly elected based on universal adult suffrage.

Russian Provisional Government in March 1917

Try yourself:Tsarina Alexandra was of the

• A.German origin
• B.French origin
• C.Russian origin
• D.Dutch origin

View Solution

After February

• Army officials, landowners, and industrialists held significant power in the Provisional Government. However, both the liberals and socialists among them aimed for an elected government.
• Restrictions on public meetings and associations were lifted.
• In April 1917, Vladimir Lenin, the leader of the Bolsheviks, returned to Russia from exile.
• He and the Bolsheviks had been against the war since 1914.
• Lenin announced his ‘April Theses’, which called for an end to the war, land to be given to the peasants, and the nationalisation of banks. These were Lenin’s core demands.
• Initially, most in the Bolshevik Party were taken aback by the April Theses. They believed it was too early for a socialist revolution and that the Provisional Government should be supported. However, events in the following months shifted their views.
• The workers’ movement continued to grow throughout the summer, leading to the creation of factory committees and trade unions, as well as soldier committees within the army.
• In June, approximately 500 Soviets sent delegates to an All-Russian Congress of Soviets. There was no uniform system of election for these Soviets.
• As Bolshevik influence expanded and the Provisional Government weakened, the latter took harsh actions against the rising discontent, arresting leaders and resisting workers’ attempts to manage factories.
• In July 1917, the Bolsheviks organised popular demonstrations that were seemingly suppressed, forcing many of their leaders to go into hiding or flee.

The Revolution of October 1917

• Lenin grew increasingly worried that the Provisional Government might establish a dictatorship as tensions between them and the Bolsheviks heightened.
• In September, he began preparations for a rebellion against the government, rallying Bolshevik supporters from the army, Soviets, and factories.
• On 16 October 1917, Lenin convinced the Petrograd Soviet and the Bolshevik Party to endorse a socialist seizure of power. A Military Revolutionary Committee was appointed by the Soviet, led by Leon Trotskii, to plan the takeover. The date of the uprising was kept secret.
• The uprising commenced on 24 October. Anticipating unrest, Prime Minister Kerenskii left the city to call for troops. At dawn, military forces loyal to the government captured the offices of two Bolshevik newspapers.
• Government troops were dispatched to seize telephone and telegraph offices and to guard the Winter Palace.
• Later that day, the ship Aurora bombarded the Winter Palace, allowing the committee to capture the city and leading to the ministers’ surrender.
• During a Petrograd meeting of the All-Russian Congress of Soviets, the majority supported the Bolshevik actions.
• Uprisings also occurred in other cities, with intense fighting, particularly in Moscow.
• By December, the Bolsheviks had gained control over the Moscow-Petrograd region.

The Petrograd Soviet, the banner on the left reads, “Down with Lenin and Co.”

Try yourself:What was the main difference between the Mensheviks and the Bolsheviks?

• A.The Mensheviks were led by Lenin, while the Bolsheviks were led by Plekhanov.
• B.The Mensheviks favored peaceful and constitutional means, while the Bolsheviks were extreme socialists. 
• C.The Mensheviks supported the parliamentary system of government, while the Bolsheviks wanted to establish an autocracy.
• D.The Mensheviks operated as an illegal organization, while the Bolsheviks worked legally.

View Solution

What Changed After October?

• Private property was strongly opposed by the Bolsheviks, who nationalised most industries and banks in November 1917. They also allowed peasants to take land from the nobility.
• They enforced the division of large homes in cities and prohibited the use of aristocratic titles.
• The army and officials received new uniforms to signify the change.
• The Bolshevik Party was renamed the Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik). In November 1917, they held elections for the Constituent Assembly but did not secure majority support.
• The Assembly rejected Bolshevik proposals, resulting in its dismissal by Lenin in January 1918.
• Despite opposition from political allies, the Bolsheviks signed a peace treaty with Germany at Brest Litovsk in March 1918.
• In the following years, the Bolsheviks became the only party to participate in elections for the All Russian Congress of Soviets, which evolved into the country’s Parliament, establishing Russia as a one-party state.

The Civil War

A Red Army Unit marches through Kharkiv during the Civil WarA 

• After the Bolsheviks ordered land redistribution, the Russian army broke apart, with soldiers—mostly peasants—deserting to go home for land.
• Opponents of the Bolsheviks, including non-Bolshevik socialists, liberals, and supporters of autocracy, condemned the Bolshevik uprising. Their leaders moved to southern Russia to organise troops to fight the Reds. They received support from French, American, British, and Japanese troops, who were concerned about the rise of socialism in Russia.
• During 1918 and 1919, the Socialist Revolutionaries (known as “greens”) and pro-Tsarists (referred to as “whites”) controlled most of the Russian empire. As these troops fought the Bolsheviks in a civil war, looting, banditry, and famine became widespread.
• Supporters of private property among the “whites” took severe actions against peasants who had seized land, leading to a loss of popular support for the non-Bolsheviks.
• By January 1920, the Bolsheviks had taken control of most of the former Russian empire. To gain support, they granted political autonomy to non-Russian nationalities in the Soviet Union (USSR), established by the Bolsheviks from the Russian empire in December 1922. However, their attempts to win over different nationalities were only partially successful, as they enforced unpopular policies on local governments, such as the harsh discouragement of nomadism.

Try yourself:

What was the main objective of the Bolsheviks after the October Revolution?

• A.To establish a democratic government
• B.To nationalize industries and banks
• C.To restore the monarchy
• D.To promote private property rights

View Solution

Making a Socialist Society

Economic Policies

• Nationalization: During the civil war, the Bolsheviks kept industries and banks nationalised.
• Land Cultivation: Peasants were allowed to cultivate land that had been socialized.
• Centralized Planning: A system of centralised planning was introduced. Officials evaluated how the economy could operate and set goals for a five-year period, resulting in the creation of the Five Year Plans.
• First Two Five-Year Plans (1927-1932 and 1933-1938): These plans focused on industrial growth, with fixed prices across various sectors.
• Economic Growth: Industrial production experienced substantial increases, including a 100% rise in oil, coal, and steel production from 1929 to 1933.

Industrialization and Its Challenges

• Rapid Construction: New industrial cities, such as Magnitogorsk, were built rapidly. The steel plant in Magnitogorsk was finished in just three years.
• Working Conditions: Working conditions were tough, with frequent work stoppages and challenging living situations. Workers often encounter many difficulties.

Social Policies

• Extended Schooling: Education was broadened, giving factory workers and peasants a chance to attend universities.
• Crèches: Childcare facilities were set up in factories to assist working women.
• Public Health Care: Affordable public health care services were made available.
• Model Living Quarters: Some model living quarters were created for workers, although their availability was limited due to tight government resources.

Stalinism and Collectivization

• Context of Early Planned Economy: In the late 1920s, Soviet towns faced serious grain shortages as government price controls led peasants to withhold their grain, showing the flaws in early Soviet economic policies.
• Stalin’s Emergency Measures: After Lenin’s death, Stalin took over and blamed wealthy peasants, or “kulaks”, for hoarding grain. He enforced strict grain collections, with party members raiding kulaks to obtain food supplies.
• The Collectivization Program: It was argued that grain shortages were partly due to the small size of holdings. Stalin launched collectivization in 1929, forcing peasants into state-controlled farms (kolkhozes) to modernise agriculture. Peasants shared land, tools, and profits under state supervision.
• Resistance and Consequences: Many peasants resisted collectivization by destroying their livestock, leading to a significant drop in cattle numbers. Resistance was met with harsh punishment, and independent farming was pushed to the margins.
• Impact, Criticism, and Repression: Collectivization resulted in a devastating famine (1930-1933), causing millions of deaths. Criticism within the party arose, but Stalin responded with severe repression, imprisoning or executing over 2 million people by 1939.

The Global Influence of the Russian Revolution and the USSR

International Response to Bolshevism

• The rise of the Bolsheviks led to mixed reactions worldwide.
• European socialists were cautious about the authoritarian methods, yet the idea of a workers’ state motivated communist parties globally, including the Communist Party of Great Britain.
• The Bolsheviks encouraged colonial peoples to emulate their model, promoting it internationally.
• Many non-Russians participated in the Conference of the Peoples of the East (1920) and the Bolshevik-founded Comintern, boosting the USSR’s global influence by World War II.

Internal Criticism and Decline

• By the 1950s, there was recognition within the USSR that its government style did not align with the ideals of the Russian Revolution.
• International socialists raised concerns about the restrictions on freedoms and the USSR’s development approach.
• A previously backward country had transformed into a great power with developed industries and agriculture, feeding the poor.
• However, the government denied essential freedoms to its citizens and enforced its development through repressive policies.

Development vs. Freedom

• While the USSR achieved significant economic progress, its suppression of freedoms attracted criticism.
• Socialists argued that true socialist values were being compromised, leading to discussions about the balance between growth and individual rights.

Decline in Reputation

• By the end of the twentieth century, the international standing of the USSR as a socialist nation had diminished.
• Despite this, socialist ideals continued to hold respect among its populace.
• Many outside the USSR questioned its commitment to genuine socialism.

Reevaluation of Socialism

• The Soviet model prompted a global reevaluation of socialism.
• Various nations began to adopt socialist ideas that emphasised freedom and rights, leading to new, localised forms of socialism.

Difficult Words

• Suffragette movement: A movement to give women the right to vote.
• Jadidists: Muslim reformers within the Russian Empire.
• Real wage: Reflects the amounts of goods that wages can buy.
• Autonomy: The right to govern themselves.
• Nomadism: A lifestyle of people who move from place to place to earn a living.
• Deported: Forcibly removed from one’s own country.
• Exiled: Forced to live away from one’s own country.
• Aristocracy: A class of people with special rank and privileges, especially the hereditary nobility.
• Dynastic: Related to a dynasty, a sequence of rulers from the same family.
• Franchise: The right to vote in public elections.
• Judiciary: The judges of a country; judicial authorities collectively.
• Cooperatives: Enterprises owned by and operated for the benefit of those using their services.
• Autocracy: A government system where one person has absolute power.
• Provisional: Existing for the present, possibly to change later.
• Soviet: A governing council in the former Soviet Union, usually elected from workplaces or army units.
• Constituent: A part of a whole; a component.
• Kulaks: Wealthy peasants in the Soviet Union who owned larger farms and used hired labour; they were targeted during Stalin’s forced collectivisation.
• Collective farms (kolkhoz): Agricultural cooperatives in the Soviet Union where land and equipment were pooled for collective farming.
• Planned Economy: An economic system where the government controls and regulates production, distribution, and prices.

Some important dates

• 1850s – 1880s: Debates over socialism in Russia.
• 1898: Formation of the Russian Social Democratic Workers Party.
• 1905: Bloody Sunday and the Revolution of 1905.
• 1917: 2nd March – Abdication of the Tsar; 24th October – Bolshevik uprising in Petrograd.
• 1918-20: The Civil War.
• 1919: Formation of Comintern.
• 1929: Beginning of Collectivisation.

Note on Calendar Change: Russia followed the Julian calendar until 1 February 1918. It then changed to the Gregorian calendar, which is used everywhere today. The Gregorian dates are 13 days ahead of the Julian dates. Thus, according to our calendar, the ‘February’ Revolution took place on 12th March and the ‘October’ Revolution on 7th November.

Context on Conditions in 1904: The year 1904 was particularly difficult for Russian workers. Prices of essential goods rose quickly, leading to a 20% decline in real wages.

The French Revolution

The French Revolution is seen as a pivotal moment in human history. It began in 1789, dismantling existing political structures, overthrowing the French Monarchy, and striving to create a fair society with accountable governance.

Key Events Leading to the Revolution

• On 14 July 1789, Paris was in a state of panic as the king ordered troops into the city, leading to fears that the army would attack the citizens.
• In response to the perceived threat, about 7,000 concerned citizens formed a militia and marched towards the Bastille, a fortress-prison symbolising the king’s oppressive power.
• Their bold attack aimed at seizing weapons and ammunition resulted in a fierce battle, where the commander of the Bastille was killed, and although only seven prisoners were freed, it was a significant moment.
• The fall of the Bastille, combined with soaring bread prices and widespread dissatisfaction, triggered a series of revolutionary events that eventually led to the king’s execution. The fortress was destroyed, and its rubble was sold as souvenirs.

Illustration of Storming of the Bastille Prison

French Society During The Late Eighteenth Century

• In 1774, Louis XVI, a young king married to Marie Antoinette, inherited a France in serious financial trouble. The country was deeply in debt due to long wars and the extravagant costs of the lavish court at Versailles.
•  France’s support for the American colonies in their fight against Britain only worsened the financial strain, increasing the debt to over 3 billion livres and leading to high interest rates on loans.
• To cover with expenses like the army, government, and court, the king had to raise taxes. However, only the common people, or the Third Estate, paid these taxes.  
• The term ‘Old Regime’ is usually used to describe the society and institutions of France before 1789. 
• French society before 1789 was divided into three estates, known as a society of estates or feudalism.
  The estates are constituted as follows:
  (a) The First Estate consisted of the clergy.
  The clergy were exempted from paying taxes to the king.
  (b) The Second Estate consisted of nobility and was also exempted from taxes.
  The nobles further enjoyed feudal privileges, which included feudal dues that they extracted from the peasants.
  (c) The Third Estate consisted of big businessmen, merchants, court officials, lawyers, peasants and artisans, landless labour, servants, etc. The Third Estate comprised both rich and poor persons.

The Church too extracted its share of taxes called tithes from the peasants, and finally, all members of the third estate had to pay taxes to the state. These included a direct tax, called taille, and a number of indirect taxes which were levied on articles of everyday consumption like salt or tobacco. The burden of financing activities of the state through taxes was borne by the third estate alone.

The Struggle to Survive

• From 1715 to 1789, France’s population grew from about 23 million to 28 million. This rapid increase led to a surge in demand for food, especially bread, which was a staple for most people. 
• However, grain production could not keep up with this rising demand, causing bread prices to soar. Workers, mainly employed in workshops with fixed wages, saw their earnings fall behind the rising cost of living.
•  As a result, the gap between the rich and the poor widened. Conditions worsened further when poor harvests due to droughts or hail hit, leading to frequent subsistence crises during the Old Regime.

Try yourself:What was the main cause of the rising discontent among the common people in French society before 1789?

• A.Exemption of the clergy from paying taxes
• B.Feudal privileges enjoyed by the nobility
• C.High interest rates on loans due to the country’s debt
• D.Soaring bread prices and falling wages

View Solution

How a Subsistence  Crisis Happens

Subsistence Crisis

Growing Middle Class Envisages an End to Privileges

• Peasant and Worker Revolts: In the past, peasants and workers protested against rising taxes and food shortages. However, they lacked the means and proper programmes to bring about significant social or economic changes.
• Rise of the Middle Class: During the eighteenth century, a new social group called the middle class emerged. These individuals earned wealth through overseas trade and the manufacture of goods like woollen, and silk textiles. This group became prosperous and educated, and they rejected the idea of privilege by birth.
• Merchants, Lawyers, and Professionals: The third estate also included merchants, manufacturers, lawyers, and administrative officials. They believed that social status should depend on a person’s merit rather than their birth.
• Philosophical Influence
  John Locke: In Two Treatises of Government, Locke challenged the idea of the divine and absolute right of kings.
  Jean-Jacques Rousseau: He proposed a government based on a social contract between people and their representatives.
  Montesquieu: In The Spirit of the Laws, Montesquieu suggested the division of power into the legislative, executive, and judicial branches. This idea later influenced the US constitution.
• Spread of Ideas: The ideas of these philosophers were discussed in salons and coffee-houses, and circulated through books and newspapers. Many people, even those who couldn’t read, had access to these ideas as they were often read aloud in groups.
• Anger Against Privilege: News that Louis XVI intended to impose more taxes to cover state expenses caused widespread anger and protest against the privileges of the aristocracy.

The Outbreak of the Revolution

Key Events which lead to Outbreak of French Revolution

a) Taxation: Faced with financial difficulties, Louis XVI needed to increase taxes but lacked the power to impose them unilaterally.

b) Estates General

• Role: A political body representing three estates: First Estate (clergy), Second Estate (nobility), and Third Estate (commoners).
• Meeting Call: Louis XVI summoned the Estates General on May 5, 1789, for the first time since 1614 to address the tax issue.

c) Assembly Setup: First and Second Estates had 300 representatives each. Third Estate had 600 representatives, seated separately and at a disadvantage. Third Estate included prosperous and educated members, while peasants, artisans, and women were excluded but submitted grievances through letters.

d) Voting Dispute:

• Traditional Voting: Each estate had one vote.
• Third Estate’s Demand: Voting by individual members, reflecting democratic principles as proposed by Rousseau.
• Outcome: Louis XVI rejected the proposal, leading the Third Estate to walk out.

e) Formation of the National Assembly

• Declaration: On June 20, 1789, the Third Estate declared itself the National Assembly in the tennis court at Versailles.
• Objective: To draft a constitution limiting the monarch’s power.

Leaders:

• Mirabeau: Noble, advocated for dismantling feudal privileges, gave influential speeches.
• Abbé Sieyès: Priest, authored the pamphlet “What is the Third Estate?

The Tennis Court Oath

f) Popular Uprisings:

• Economic Crisis: Poor harvests and high bread prices led to public unrest in France.
• Bastille Storming: On July 14, 1789, the crowd attacked the Bastille, symbolizing the start of widespread revolt.
• Peasant Revolts: Rumors of brigands led to attacks on chateaux, looting, and burning of manorial records.

g) Royal Response and Reforms:

• Recognition of National Assembly: Louis XVI accepted the National Assembly’s authority.
• August 4, 1789 Decree: Abolition of feudal obligations and privileges, including:
  (i) Feudal System: Eliminated feudal dues and taxes
  (ii) Clergy Privileges: Tithes abolished, Church lands confiscated.
  (iii) Government Assets: Acquired assets worth at least 2 billion livres.

Try yourself:

What event led to the formation of the National Assembly during the French Revolution?

• A.The storming of the Bastille
• B.The meeting of the Estates General
• C.The passing of the decree abolishing feudal privileges
• D.The outbreak of widespread riots and attacks

View SolutionFrance Becomes a Constitutional Monarchy

• The National Assembly completed the drafting of the constitution in 1791. 
• Power was now separated and assigned to different institutions- the legislature, executive, and judiciary making France a constitutional monarchy.
• The Constitution of 1791 vested the power to make laws in the National Assembly, which was indirectly elected.
• The Constitution began with a Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. Rights such as the right to life, freedom of speech, freedom of opinion, and equality before the law are recognized as ‘natural and inalienable’ rights.

The Political System under the Constitution of 1791

The Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen

Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen

• Equality and Natural Rights
  Men are born and remain free and have equal rights. The aim of every political association is the preservation of the natural and inalienable rights of man, which include liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression.
• Sovereignty and Authority
  The source of all sovereignty resides in the nation. No group or individual may exercise authority that does not come from the people.

Declaration of rights of man and citizens.

• Liberty and the Law
  Liberty consists of the power to do whatever is not injurious to others. The law has the right to forbid only actions that are injurious to society. Law is the expression of the general will. All citizens have the right to participate in its formation, personally or through their representatives, and all citizens are equal before it.
• Legal Protections and Freedoms
  No man is accused, arrested, or detained except in cases determined by the law. Every citizen may speak, write, and print freely, taking responsibility for the abuse of such liberty in cases determined by the law.
• Taxation and Property Rights
  For the maintenance of the public force and the expenses of administration, a common tax is indispensable; it must be assessed equally on all citizens in proportion to their means. Since property is a sacred and inviolable right, no one may be deprived of it unless a legally established public necessity requires it, and just compensation must be given in advance.

The majority of people at that time could not read and write, so he used many symbols to convey the content of the Declaration of rights:

• The broken chain: Stands for the act of becoming free.
• The bundle of rods: It implies that strength lies in unity as one can be easily broken but not an entire bundle.
• The eye within a triangle radiating light: The eye stands for knowledge. The rays of the sun will drive away from the clouds of ignorance.
  
• Sceptre: It is a symbol of royal power.
  
• The snake biting its tail to form a ring, a symbol of eternity.
  
• Red cap: A cap is worn by a slave upon becoming free.
  
• Blue, White, and Red: These are the National colours of France.
  
• Winged woman: Personification of the law.
  
• The law tablet: The law is the same for all.

France Abolishes Monarchy and Becomes a Republic

• Although Louis XVI had signed the Constitution, he entered into secret negotiations with the King of Prussia.

Proclamation of the abolition of the monarchy 

• The National Assembly voted in April 1792 to declare war against Prussia and Austria. People saw this as a war of the people against kings and aristocracies all over Europe.
• The revolutionary wars brought losses and economic difficulties to the people. 
• Political clubs became an important rallying point for people who wished to discuss government policies and plan their own forms of action. 
• The most successful of these clubs was that of the Jacobins, which got its name from the former convent of St. Jacob in Paris.
• In the summer of 1792, the Jacobins planned an insurrection of a large number of Parisians who were angered by the short supplies and high prices of food. On the morning of August 10, they stormed the Palace of the Tuileries and took the king hostage for several hours.
• Elections were held. The newly elected assembly was called the Convention. On 21 September 1792, it abolished the monarchy and declared France a Republic.
• Louis XVI was sentenced to death by a court on charges of treason. On 21 January 1793, he was executed publicly at the Place de la Concorde.

(a) The Reign of Terror

The period between 1793-94 is referred to as the “Reign of Terror”.

• During this period, Robespierre followed a severe control and punishment policy.
• Ex-nobles and clergy, even members of his own party who did not agree with his methods were arrested and imprisoned.
• France witnessed the guillotine of thousands of nobles and innocent men. The guillotine is a device consisting of two poles and a blade with which a person is beheaded. 
• Robespierre issued laws placing a maximum ceiling on prices. Churches were shut down.
• Finally, Robespierre was guillotined in July 1794.

(b) A Directory Rules France

• The reign of terror ended in 1794. The Jacobin government fell, and a new constitution was prepared by an elected convention providing for a republican form of government with a legislature and an executive body called the Directory. 
• The Directory was an executive made up of five members. Directors often clashed with the legislative councils, who then sought to dismiss them. 
• The political instability of the Directory paved the way for the rise of a military dictator, Napoleon Bonaparte.

Did Women Have a Revolution?

• Most women of the third estate had to work for a living, and did not have access to education or job training. Working women had to for their families; their wages were lower than those of men.
• In order to discuss and voice their interests, women started their own political clubs and newspapers. About sixty women’s clubs came up in different French cities. One of their main demands was that women enjoy the same political rights as men.
  Women’s Club during French Revolution
• The early revolutionary government implemented several laws that significantly improved the lives of women. These included the establishment of state schools and compulsory education for all girls. Women could no longer be forced into marriage against their will, and both men and women were granted the right to file for divorce. Additionally, women were now able to receive job training, pursue careers as artists, or even run their own small businesses.
• During the  Reign of Terror, the new government-issued laws ordered the closure of women’s clubs and banning their political activities.
• The fight for the vote was carried out through an International suffrage movement during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. It was finally in 1946 that women in France won the right to vote.

Some of the basic rights set forth in Olympe de Gouges’ Declaration. 

1. Equality: Women are born free and have equal rights to men.
2. Political Purpose: Political associations should protect the natural rights of both women and men, including liberty, property, security, and resistance to oppression.
3. Sovereignty: Sovereignty belongs to the nation, which consists of both women and men.
4. Legal Equality: Laws must reflect the general will, apply equally to all citizens, and allow everyone to participate in their creation. Citizens should access honors and public positions based on merit.
5. Legal Accountability: Women, like men, are subject to the law and must adhere to it.

Try yourself:Which group played an important role in the French Revolution by demanding for the abolition of special rights and drafting a constitution to limit the monarch’s power? 

• A.The clergy
• B.The nobility
• C.The Third Estate
• D.The military

View Solution

The Abolition of Slavery

• One of the most significant social reforms of the Jacobin regime was the abolition of slavery in French colonies. The Caribbean colonies—Martinique, Guadeloupe, and Saint-Domingue—were crucial for producing goods like tobacco, indigo, sugar, and coffee.
• A shortage of European labor in these distant lands resulted in the establishment of a triangular slave trade between Europe, Africa, and the Americas starting in the seventeenth century.
• French merchants from ports like Bordeaux and Nantes engaged with local chieftains in Africa to acquire slaves, reflecting a complicated network of trade relationships. These slaves were then shipped across the Atlantic to the Caribbean under harsh conditions and sold to plantation owners.

• Slave labor was essential for meeting the European demand for sugar, coffee, and indigo, contributing to the economic prosperity of French port cities.
• Throughout the eighteenth century, slavery faced little opposition in France. Although the National Assembly debated extending human rights to all French subjects, including those in the colonies, it avoided passing any laws due to pressure from business interests reliant on the slave trade.
• It was only in 1794 that the Convention legislated the abolition of slavery in French colonies. However, this abolition was temporary, as Napoleon reinstated slavery in 1804.
• Plantation owners understood their freedom as including the right to enslave African Negroes in pursuit of their economic interests. It wasn’t until 1848 that slavery was permanently abolished in the French colonies.

The Revolution and Everyday Life

• Political Influence on Daily Life
  The years following 1789 in France saw significant changes in the lives of men, women, and children. The revolutionary governments passed laws to translate the ideals of liberty and equality into everyday practice.
• Abolition of Censorship
  One important law enacted after the storming of the Bastille in 1789 was the abolition of censorship. In the Old Regime, all written material and cultural activities could only be published or performed after approval by the king’s censors.
• Freedom of Speech and Expression
  The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen proclaimed freedom of speech and expression as a natural right. This led to a flood of newspapers, pamphlets, books, and printed pictures that spread rapidly from towns to the countryside, discussing the events and changes taking place in France.
• Diverse Opinions and Press Freedom
  Freedom of the press meant that opposing views could be expressed. Different sides sought to convince others of their positions through print media, which enabled a broader exchange of ideas and opinions
• Cultural Engagement and Public Participation
  Plays, songs, and festive processions attracted large audiences, allowing people to grasp and identify with revolutionary ideas like liberty and justice. This public engagement helped to disseminate political philosophies to a wider audience beyond the educated elite.

Conclusion: The Rise And Fall Of Napoleon

• In 1804, Napoleon Bonaparte declared himself Emperor of France.
  Napoleon Bonaparte
• He embarked on a campaign to conquer neighboring European countries, dispossessing dynasties and creating kingdoms where he placed members of his family. Napoleon saw his role as a Moderniser of Europe. 
• He introduced many laws such as the protection of private property and a uniform system of weight and measures provided by the decimal system. 
• Initially, many saw Napoleon as a liberator who would bring freedom to the people. Soon, however, the Napoleonic armies came to be viewed everywhere as an invading force.

Old NCERT

Causes of the French Revolution

1. Political Causes

• The political structure of the French state was highly unpopular with the people who were burdened with heavy taxes and insecure conditions of life and property.
• The extravagance and inefficiency of the Bourbon Kings exacerbated the despotism and tyranny associated with the divine rights of the kings.
• Louis XV indulged in a life of ease and pleasure and was not interested in administrative reforms or the welfare of the people.
• Louis XVI though good-natured was completely under the influence of incompetent and corrupt ministers and a domineering queen of Austria, Marie Antoinette.
• There was an absence of any representative body to voice the needs of the people. Local bodies called Parliament were courts of justice rather than voices of the people.

2. Social Forces

• The unfair division of French society and its feudal nature was also responsible for the revolution.

Clergymen and Nobles compressing Commoners

• The first two estates enjoyed all the privileges and benefits in society whereas the third estate was fraught with inequalities and discrimination. Most of the burden of taxation was borne by the least privileged and most impoverished third estate.
• The middle class was most receptive to new ideas and values because they were educated and had a broader outlook. They denied the traditional ideas of rights and privileges based solely on birth and instead favored merit-based criteria.

3. Economic Unrest

• In the 18th century the condition of the common man had become pathetic, the problem of subsistence was due to the failure of crops and an increase in the prices of food grains.
• In the second half of the 18th century, the French economy had started expanding, but its financial impact was uneven, the hardest hit was the Third Estate.

Subsistence Crisis

• Between 1689 and 1783 France fought several long and exhausting wars which proved to be disastrous both in terms of French Manpower and finances, not only leading to mounting debts but interest on these debts also multiplied.
• To meet its mounting costs, the government increased taxes. The peasantry was the hardest hit who owned the minimum land and paid the maximum taxes.
• Taxes were called “Taille” the direct land tax, a salt tax known as Gabelle, feudal dues or payments were taken by nobility and taxes known as Tithe was taken by the Church.

Effects of the French Revolution

(a) Effect on France

• The French Revolution put an end to the arbitrary rule in France and paved the way for the establishment of a republic there. 
• The special privileges of the high order were abolished and led to the regeneration of France on the basis of social equality. 
• The Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen granted freedom and individual liberty to all without any distinction of class or creed. Many reforms were introduced in the administration. 
• The higher and more important posts in the state were opened to talented people. All were granted religious freedom. 
• The Napoleonic Code introduced a uniform system of weights and measures based on the decimal system, making it clear and simple.

(b) Effects on Europe

• Equality: The French Revolution had a great influence on Europe. Equality was one of the main principles of the French Revolution. it implied the equality of all before the law and the abolition of privileges enjoyed by the upper order in society. It established social, economic, and political equality in European countries.
• Liberty: The revolutionary idea of liberty was hailed all over Europe. it implied social, political, and religious freedom. The declaration of rights made people understand the importance of personal liberty and rights.
• Sovereignty: The French Revolution emphasized the fact that sovereignty resides in the general public and law should be based on the will of the people. It infused the spirit of nationalism and patriotism in the people.

(c) Global Impact

• The French Revolution had a global impact which fostered equality in India.
• The UN Charter of Human Rights also embodies the principles of the French Revolution as laid down in the Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizens.

Difficult Words

• Livre – A unit of currency in France, discontinued in 1794
• Clergy – A group of persons with special roles in the church
• Tithe – A tax imposed by the church, equal to one-tenth of the agricultural produce
• Taille – A tax paid directly to the state
• Subsistence crisis – An extreme situation where basic means of livelihood are threatened
• Anonymous – Someone whose name is not known
• Chateau – A castle or grand residence owned by a king or noble
• Manor – An estate that includes the lord’s lands and his mansion
• Convent – A building where a community lives a religious life
• Treason – The act of betraying one’s country or government
• Negroes – A term previously used for indigenous people of Africa south of the Sahara; now considered derogatory.
• Emancipation – The act of freeing someone

Some Important Dates

• 1774: Louis XVI becomes king of France, facing an empty treasury and increasing discontent in society.
• 1789: The Estates General is called, the Third Estate forms the National Assembly, the Bastille is stormed, and peasant revolts occur in the countryside.
• 1791: A constitution is created to limit the king’s powers and guarantee basic rights for all.
• 1792-93: France becomes a republic, and the king is executed. The Jacobin republic is overthrown, leading to rule by a Directory.
• 1804: Napoleon becomes emperor of France and annexes large parts of Europe.
• 1815: Napoleon is defeated at Waterloo.