Electoral Politics refers to the process through which representatives are elected by the people to govern on their behalf in a democracy. It encompasses all activities related to elections, including campaigning, voting, and the declaration of results.
In a democratic system, citizens govern indirectly by choosing representatives through elections. This chapter explores the essential role of elections in democracy, explaining why they are necessary and how they work.
Why Elections?
Elections are essential in a democracy, allowing people to select their leaders and ensure they are held responsible. The 1987 Haryana Assembly election is a key example of how this process works within the larger context of Indian democracy.
Assembly Election in Haryana
The Congress party had been in power since 1982.
Chaudhary Devi Lal, the opposition leader, initiated the ‘Nyaya Yudh’ movement (Struggle for Justice), established a new party called Lok Dal, and collaborated with other opposition groups to challenge Congress.
Chaudhary Devi Lal
Election Results
The public was unhappy with the current government and found Devi Lal’s promise attractive.
Lok Dal and its allies secured 76 out of 90 seats in the State Assembly.
Lok Dal won 60 seats on its own, while Congress managed only 5.
Devi Lal was elected as leader by the newly chosen MLAs.
The Governor invited Devi Lal to take on the role of Chief Minister.
Devi Lal Government Actions
Waived outstanding loans for small farmers, agricultural labourers, and small businessmen.
Ruled the state for four years.
1991 Haryana State Assembly Election
Lok Dal did not win popular support.
Congress won the election and formed the government.
Try yourself:
What was the main reason for the formation of the Lok Dal party in Haryana?
A.To challenge the ruling Congress party in the state elections.
B.To support the ‘Nyaya Yudh’ movement led by Chaudhary Devi.
C.To waive loans for farmers and small businessmen if elected.
D.To unite with other opposition parties against the Congress.
View Solution
Why do we need elections?
Elections are a crucial part of any democratic system. They serve several key purposes:
Representation: In a large society, it is not practical for everyone to gather and make decisions directly. Elections allow people to choose representatives who will make decisions on their behalf.
Accountability: Elections provide a way for people to hold their representatives accountable. If the representatives do not perform well or fulfill their promises, voters can replace them in the next election.
Legitimacy: Elections give legitimacy to the government. When leaders are chosen by the people, it reinforces the idea that the government represents the will of the majority.
Freedom of Choice: Elections allow citizens to choose who will create laws, form the government, and guide policies. This gives people a direct role in shaping their society.
Regular Intervals: Elections occur at regular intervals, ensuring that representatives are continuously accountable and that citizens have the opportunity to make new choices.
Without elections, a system cannot truly be democratic because there would be no way to measure public opinion, change leadership, or ensure that government power reflects the people’s will.
What Choices Do Voters Make?
Voters choose who will make laws.
Voters choose who will form the government.
Voters choose the party whose ideas will guide the government.
What makes an election democratic?
Democratic Elections vs. Other Elections
Democratic elections exist in all democratic countries, while some non-democratic countries also hold elections.
It’s essential to distinguish democratic elections from other elections for a better understanding.
Minimum Conditions for Democratic Elections:
Equal voting rights: Everyone should have one vote, and each vote should have equal value.
Availability of choices: Parties and candidates should be free to contest elections, providing real choices to voters.
Regular intervals: Elections should be held every few years to maintain a democratic system.
People’s preference: The candidate preferred by the majority should be elected.
Free and fair conduct: Elections should be conducted in a manner where people can choose according to their wishes.
Applying Conditions to Our Country
It’s necessary to assess if these conditions are met in our country to determine if our elections are democratic.
Many countries do not fulfill these simple yet essential conditions for democratic elections.
Try yourself:
Why do we need elections in a democracy?
A.To allow people to choose their representatives and change them if desired.
B.To determine the most experienced and knowledgeable leaders.
C.To waive outstanding loans for small farmers and businessmen.
D.To form a government and make major decisions.
View Solution
Is it good to have political competition?
Elections are essentially about political rivalry.
This rivalry occurs in different ways.
The most apparent form is the competition amongst political parties.
At the constituency level, it involves a contest between multiple candidates.
Without competition, elections would lose their purpose.
Problems with Political Competition
Political competition can lead to fights, blame games, and dirty tricks between parties.
It sometimes causes disunity in local areas.
Some people feel this competition stops leaders from making long-term, good policies.
Good people who want to serve the country may stay away from politics due to this unhealthy environment.
Why Do We Still Have Political Competition?
Our Constitution makers knew these problems, but still chose free competition in elections.
This is because, in real life, leaders are not always motivated just to serve the people. Many also want power and positions.
Even if leaders want to serve the people, they may not always know what the people truly need.
How do Elections Help?
Elections allow people to reward or remove leaders based on their performance.
If leaders do good work, they have a better chance of winning again.
If they fail, people can vote them out in the next election.
This system is like a market—just as a shopkeeper gives good service to keep customers, leaders must work for the people to stay in power.
What is Our System of Elections?
To determine if Indian elections are democratic, let’s look at how they are carried out.
Lok Sabha and Vidhan Sabha (Assembly) elections happen every five years, marking the end of the elected representatives’ terms, leading to the dissolution of the Lok Sabha or Vidhan Sabha.
Elections occur simultaneously across all constituencies, either on the same day or within a few days, known as a general election.
Sometimes, a single constituency holds an election to fill a vacancy due to a member’s death or resignation, called a by-election.
Electoral Constituencies
India follows an area-based system of representation. For this purpose, the country is divided into different areas for purposes of elections. These are called electoral constituencies.
Voters who live in a constituency elect a representative for their area.
For the Lok Sabha elections, the country is divided into 543 constituencies.
Each constituency elects a representative, known as a Member of Parliament or MP.
Therefore, 543 MPs get elected to the Lok Sabha as people’s representatives.
In a democratic election, every vote should hold equal value, so the Constitution mandates that each constituency should have a roughly equal population.
Each state is also divided into a specific number of Assembly constituencies, where the elected representative is called the Member of Legislative Assembly or MLA.
The same principle applies to Panchayat and Municipal elections. Every village or town is divided into various ‘wards’ that function like constituencies. Each ward elects one member of the village or urban local body.
Sometimes, these constituencies are referred to as ‘seats’, as each constituency represents one seat in the assembly.
For example, when we say ‘Lok Dal won 60 seats’ in Haryana, it means that Lok Dal candidates emerged victorious in 60 assembly constituencies in the state, resulting in 60 MLAs for Lok Dal in the state assembly.
Reserved Constituencies
A true democracy provides equal opportunity to all individuals and sections of society to take part in elections, get elected, and share in the governance of the economy.
Concerns of the Constitution Makers
Weaker sections may not have a fair chance in open electoral competition
Lack of resources, education, and contacts could hinder their chances of winning elections.
Democracy would be less representative without the voice of these significant sections
Reserved Constituencies
Special system for weaker sections (Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes).
SC reserved constituencies: only Scheduled Castes candidates can stand for election.
ST reserved constituencies: only Scheduled Tribes candidates can stand for election.
84 Lok Sabha seats are reserved for the Scheduled Castes, 47 for the Scheduled Tribes (as on 26 January).
Reservation Extensions
The reservation system was extended to the district and local level.
Seats in rural (panchayat) and urban (municipalities and corporations) local bodies are reserved for Other Backward Classes (OBC) in many states.
The proportion of seats reserved varies from state to state.
One-third of seats are reserved in rural and urban local bodies for women candidates.
Voters’ list
After deciding the voting areas (constituencies), the next step is to make a list of who can vote.
This list is called the Electoral Roll, also known as the Voters’ List.
It is made before the election and shared with everyone.
Why is the Voters’ List Important?
It ensures that everyone gets an equal chance to vote.
According to the rule of universal adult franchise, every adult has one vote, and each vote has equal value.
People may be rich or poor, educated or not, kind or unkind — but everyone should have the right to vote because everyone has their own opinions and needs.
Who Can Vote?
In India, all citizens who are 18 years or older can vote.
Your caste, religion, or gender does not matter.
Only in rare cases, such as serious criminals or people with mental illness, can voting rights be denied.
Keeping the List Updated
The government must make sure all eligible people are included in the voters’ list.
Names are added when someone turns 18.
Names are removed if a person dies or moves to a different area.
The list is updated every five years to keep it correct.
Voter ID Card
A new system called the Election Photo Identity Card (EPIC) has been introduced.
The government is giving this card to people on the voters’ list.
Voters are asked to carry this card when voting to stop others from voting in their place.
However, this card is not mandatory. Other IDs, like a ration card or driving licence, can also be shown.
Try yourself:
What do voters in a constituency elect?
A.A Mayor
B.A President
C.A Member of Parliament
D.A Governor
View Solution
Nomination of candidates
In a democracy, people should have a real choice of candidates to vote for.
This is possible only when anyone can contest elections with very few restrictions.
Who Can Be a Candidate?
Any person who is a voter can also become a candidate.
The minimum age to vote is 18 years, but to contest elections, the person must be at least 25 years old.
People with serious criminal backgrounds can be stopped from contesting, but only in rare cases.
Party Nomination
Political parties select candidates to contest elections on their behalf.
These candidates are given the party’s symbol and are said to have received a party ticket.
What is the Nomination Process?
Anyone who wants to contest must: – Fill out a nomination form – Pay a security deposit (a fixed amount of money)
New Declaration Rules
The Supreme Court has made it compulsory for all candidates to give full details about: – Criminal cases (if any) against them – Their assets and debts – Their educational qualifications
This information must be shared with the public so that voters can make an informed choice.
Educational qualifications for candidates
Q: Why is there no educational qualification for holding such an important position when some kind of educational qualification is needed for any other job in the country?
Ans:
Some people ask why there is no educational qualification needed to become an MLA or MP, even though most jobs in the country require one.
But not all jobs need an education degree. – For example, to be in the Indian cricket team, you don’t need a degree — you need to play well. – In the same way, to be a good MLA or MP, a person needs to understand people’s problems and speak for them, not just hold a degree.
Voters are like examiners. They judge the candidates during elections and decide who is suitable to represent them.
Even if education matters, it should be the voters’ choice to decide how important it is while voting.
Also, making education compulsory would go against democracy in India. – If a rule said only graduates (B.A., B.Com, B.Sc) can contest elections, then most people (over 90%) would not be allowed to stand for elections. – This would be unfair to the majority of citizens.
Election Campaign
The main aim of an election is to give people the chance to choose their leaders, the government, and the policies they want.
So, there must be free and open discussions about who is a better candidate, which party will run the government better, what are the best policies?
An election campaign is the time when political parties and candidates talk to voters and promote their ideas.
In India, official campaigns happen for two weeks — from the day the final list of candidates is announced to the day of voting (polling). During this time: – Candidates meet voters – Political leaders give speeches – Parties gather support – TV and newspapers show news, stories, and debates about elections.
However, parties often start preparing for elections months in advance, not just during these two weeks.
What Do Parties Do in Campaigns?
Parties focus on major issues and try to convince people to vote for them based on those issues.
They use slogans and messages to catch the public’s attention and promote their promises.
Election Campaign in India
Successful Slogans in Various Elections –
In the 1971 Lok Sabha elections, Indira Gandhi and the Congress Party gave the slogan “Garibi Hatao” (Remove Poverty). They promised to change government policies to reduce poverty in the country.
In the 1977 Lok Sabha elections, the Janata Party, led by JayaprakashNarayan, used the slogan “Save Democracy”. They aimed to reverse the wrongdoings during the Emergency and bring back people’s freedoms.
During the 1977 West Bengal Assembly elections, the Left Front used the slogan “Land to the Tiller”, showing support for giving land rights to farmers who work on the land.
In the 1983 Andhra Pradesh Assembly elections, N. T. Rama Rao, leader of the Telugu Desam Party, gave the slogan “Protect the Self-Respect of the Telugus”, to promote pride and dignity among Telugu-speaking people.
Rules for Election Campaigns
In a democracy, political parties and candidates should be free to campaign in their own way.
But to make sure everyone gets a fair chance, some rules and limits are needed.
What the Law Says –
According to Indian election law, no party or candidate is allowed to bribe or threaten voters, ask for votes using caste or religion and use government property or staff for campaigning.
Spend more than:
₹25 lakh for a Lok Sabha (Parliament) election (per constituency)
₹10 lakh for an Assembly election (per constituency)
If any candidate breaks these rules, the court can cancel their election, even if they have already won.
Model Code of Conduct
All political parties in India also follow a set of rules called the Model Code of Conduct during elections. According to this:
They cannot use religious places (like temples, mosques, churches) for campaigning
They cannot use government vehicles, planes, or officials for election work
Once elections are announced, Ministers are not allowed to: – Start any new projects – Make big policy decisions – Promise new public services or benefits
Polling and counting of votes
On Election Day, every person whose name is on the voters’ list can go to a nearby polling booth, usually situated in a local school or a government office.
Voter enters the booth, identified and marked by officials.
Candidate agents ensure fair voting inside the booth.
EVMs replace ballot papers for casting votes.
EVMs display candidates’ names and symbols for voting.
EVMs are sealed and securely stored after polling.
Vote counting happens on a fixed date with candidate agents present.
The candidate with the highest votes wins the constituency.
Results are announced soon after counting, revealing the next government.
Elections do cost money, but how much is “too much” is debatable: the 2014 Lok Sabha elections cost the government about ₹3,500 crore (≈₹40 per voter), while total spending including parties and candidates was roughly ₹30,000 crore (≈₹500 per voter). Critics call this a burden for a poor country, yet comparable national expenses include a single nuclear submarine at about ₹3,000 crore (2005) and the 2010 Commonwealth Games at around ₹20,000 crore. Seen against such figures, election costs may not be excessive—you decide.
What Makes Elections in India Democratic?
Unfair practices in elections are often reported, including:
Voter List Issues: The inclusion of false names or the exclusion of genuine voters from the electoral rolls.
Misuse of Government Resources: Ruling parties may misuse government facilities and officials to gain an advantage in elections.
Excessive Use of Money: Wealthy candidates and large parties often use excessive amounts of money to influence voters.
Intimidation and Rigging: Voters may be threatened, and there can be attempts to rig the voting process on election day.
While these practices are troubling, they usually do not occur at a scale large enough to undermine the overall purpose of elections
Independent Election Commission
In India, elections are conducted by the Election Commission (EC).
The EC is independent and has a lot of power, just like the judiciary (courts).
The Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) is appointed by the President of India, but once appointed, no one can easily remove them—not even the government or ruling party.
The EC controls everything about the elections—from announcing dates to declaring results.
It enforces rules (like the Model Code of Conduct) and can punish candidates or parties who break them.
The EC can ask the government to follow certain rules during elections to make sure there is no misuse of power.
It can even transfer government officers if needed to keep elections fair.
During elections, government officers work under the EC, not under the government.
If the EC finds that voting was unfair in some areas, it can order a re-poll (voting again).
Even if the ruling party is unhappy, they have to follow the EC’s decisions.
This shows how powerful and independent the EC is.
Popular Participation
One way to judge if elections are free and fair is to see how excited and active people are in taking part. If elections are not fair, people will lose interest and stop voting.
Let’s understand people’s participation in Indian elections:
1. What is Voter Turnout?
Voter turnout means the percentage of eligible voters who actually go and vote.
In the last 50 years, voter turnout in Europe and North America has gone down.
But in India, voter turnout has stayed the same or increased.
Voter Turnout in India and the UK
2. Who Votes More in India?
In India, the poor, less educated, and underprivileged people vote more than the rich and educated.
This is opposite to countries like the USA, where rich and white people vote more, and poor, African-Americans and Hispanics vote less.
Voter Turnout in India and US by social groups, 2004
3. Why Do Common People Vote in India?
People believe elections help them put pressure on political parties.
They feel their vote can bring change and improve the way the country is run.
Voting gives them a voice in the government.
Do you think your vote makes a difference?
4. Growing Interest in Elections
In the 2004 elections, over one-third of voters took part in campaign activities (like rallies, meetings, or discussions).
More than half of the voters feel close to some political party.
1 out of every 7 voters is a member of a political party.
Those who participated in any election related activity in India
Acceptance of election outcome
If elections are not free and fair, the outcome always favours the powerful. In such a situation, the ruling parties do not lose elections. The outcome of India’s elections speaks for itself:
The ruling parties routinely lose elections in India, both at the national and state levels. In fact, in two out of the three elections held in the last fifteen years, the ruling party lost.
In the US, an incumbent or ‘sitting’ elected representative rarely loses an election. In India, about half of the sitting MPs or MLAs lose elections.
Candidates who are known to have spent a lot of money on ‘buying votes’ and those with known criminal connections often lose elections.
Barring a few disputed elections, the electoral outcomes are usually accepted as ‘people’s verdict’ by the defeated party.
Try yourself:
What is a key feature of elections in India?
A.They do not allow public participation.
B.They are only for local leaders.
C.They involve a voting process.
D.They are held every year.
View Solution
Challenges to free and fair elections
In general, elections in India are mostly free and fair. The party that wins usually does so because the people have chosen it over other parties. Yes, there may be a few places where candidates win using money or unfair means, but overall, the results of elections show what most people want. This is why Indian elections are considered democratic.
Even though elections seem fair, there are serious challenges:
1. Lack of Informed Choices
Many voters do not have full knowledge about candidates or party policies.
2. Unfair Advantage of Money and Power
Rich parties and candidates spend large amounts on campaigns.
They get more attention, making it hard for smaller parties to compete.
3. Criminal Backgrounds
In some areas, criminals manage to get party tickets and scare others away.
4. Family Dominance
Some political parties are controlled by one family.
Tickets are often given to relatives, not based on merit.
5. Limited Choice for Voters
Sometimes, both major parties have similar ideas and actions.
Voters feel they have no real alternative.
These problems are not unique to India; even developed democracies face them.
This is why citizens, NGOs, and activists are calling for electoral reforms.
What Can Be Done?
Reforms are needed to make elections more fair and inclusive.
Ordinary citizens can stay informed, vote responsibly, and raise their voices for better laws and systems.
Key Terms
Electoral Constituencies: Specific geographic areas defined for the purpose of elections, from which representatives are elected to legislative bodies. Each constituency elects one representative.
Reserved Constituencies: Constituencies where seats are reserved for candidates belonging to Scheduled Castes (SC) and Scheduled Tribes (ST) to ensure political representation for these historically marginalized communities.
Electoral Roll (Voters’ List): The official list of eligible voters who can participate in an election. This list is crucial for the organization and fairness of electoral processes.
Election Campaign: The period leading up to the election when candidates and parties promote their policies and criticize their opponents to win voter support.
Model Code of Conduct: A set of guidelines issued by the Election Commission to regulate the behavior of parties and candidates during an election. It ensures that the election campaign is conducted in a fair and respectful manner.
Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs): Devices used in elections to record votes. Voters press buttons corresponding to their chosen candidates. EVMs are designed to increase the efficiency and reliability of the electoral process.
By-Election: An election held in a single constituency to fill a vacancy that arises due to death or resignation of a member, outside the regular election cycle.
General Election: Regularly scheduled elections where representatives are chosen in all electoral constituencies, typically held at fixed intervals, as stipulated by law or the constitution.
Independent Election Commission: A neutral body established by the constitution or legislative act to oversee the conduct of elections and ensure they are free and fair.
Universal Adult Franchise: The right of all adult citizens to vote without discrimination on the basis of race, sex, belief, wealth, or social status.
Constitutional design refers to the process of creating a constitution that outlines the framework for governance in a country.
These rules are not just for the people but for the government as well.
They form the constitution, which is the foundation of every democracy.
In this chapter,Constitutional Design, we explore why constitutions are essential and how they come into existence.
We will dive into questions like who creates these constitutions, what values they represent, and how they can adapt to changing times.
Through the example of South Africa’s journey to democracy, we will see how constitutions can transform nations.
Finally, we’ll turn our attention to the making of the Indian Constitution and its guiding principles that shape the lives of citizens and the functioning of the government.
Democratic Constitution in South Africa
Nelson Mandela once declared: “I have fought against white domination and I have fought against black domination. I have cherished the ideal of a democratic and free society in which all persons live together in harmony and with equal opportunities. It is an ideal which I hope to live for and to achieve. But if needs be, it is an ideal for which I am prepared to die.”
These words were spoken during his trial for treason by the white South African government.
In 1964, Nelson Mandela and seven other leaders were sentenced to life imprisonment for resisting the apartheid regime in South Africa.
Mandela was imprisoned for the next 27 years in Robben Island, one of the most feared prisons in South Africa.
Try yourself:
What was the policy of discrimination and oppression based on race in South Africa called?
A.Segregation
B.Apartheid
C.Integration
D.Unity
View Solution
Struggle Against Apartheid
Signs of Apartheid
Apartheid was a system of racial discrimination that existed only in South Africa, enforced by white Europeans.
In the 17th and 18th centuries, European trading companies captured South Africa using force, similar to how they took control of India.
Unlike India, a large number of white Europeans settled permanently in South Africa and became its rulers.
The apartheid system divided people based on their skin colour: – Black South Africans were the native population and formed about three-fourths of the total population. – People of mixed race were referred to as ‘coloured’. – There were also Indians who had migrated to South Africa. – White rulers considered all non-white groups inferior and denied them voting rights.Population of South Africa
Apartheid was especially harsh on black South Africans: – They were banned from living in areas meant for whites. – They could only work in white areas with special permits. – Facilities like trains, buses, hospitals, schools, libraries, cinemas, beaches, and toilets were segregated—whites and blacks had to use separate ones.
They were not allowed to enter white churches, form associations, or protest against discrimination.
From 1950 onwards, the blacks, coloured people, and Indians began resisting apartheid through protests and strikes.
The African National Congress (ANC) led this resistance. It was a large organisation that included: – Workers’ unions – The Communist Party – Even some white South Africans who opposed racism
Globally, many countries condemned apartheid as a form of injustice and racism.
However, the white-dominated government responded with violence, often arresting, torturing, and killing thousands of black and coloured people.
Towards a New Constitution
As the number of protests and struggles against apartheid increased, the South African government realized it could no longer control the black population using force. So, the white government started changing its approach: a) Unfair and discriminatory laws were removed. b) Bans on political parties and restrictions on the media were lifted. c) Nelson Mandela was finally released from prison after 28 years.
On the night of 26 April 1994, South Africa got a new national flag and became a free and democratic country. The apartheid rule officially ended, and a new government was formed with people of all races.
How did this happen peacefully?
Nelson Mandela, the first President of democratic South Africa, explained that even though people had been enemies, they were ready to forgive each other and believed in the goodness of others. This helped them move from hatred to unity.
After becoming free, black leaders encouraged everyone, especially fellow black citizens, to forgive the white rulers for their past crimes.
They wanted to build a new South Africa that treated everyone equally—men and women, black and white—with values of democracy, justice, and human rights.
Both sides—the ruling party that had oppressed people and the freedom fighters—worked together to write a new constitution. After two years of discussion, they created one of the best constitutions in the world.
It gave South Africans the most complete set of rights seen in any country. They also agreed: a) No one should be left out, no matter what they did in the past. b) Everyone should help solve the country’s problems together.
This spirit is reflected in the Preamble of the South African Constitution. Today, South Africa is an example of a successful democracy.
Once rejected by the world for being unfair and racist, it is now praised for its democratic values. This change happened because the people of South Africa were determined to work together and turn their painful history into a hopeful future.
Nelson Mandela said:
“The Constitution talks about both the past and future. It is a promise that we will never repeat the racism and cruelty of the past. But it also shows our hope to turn South Africa into a country truly shared by all people — black and white, women and men.”
Nelson Mandela
Try yourself:
What was the main objective of the African National Congress?
A.To establish a non-racial democratic South Africa.
B.To enforce the policy of apartheid.
C.To impose economic sanctions on South Africa.
D.To ban the African National Congress.
View Solution
Why do we need a Constitution?
The example of South Africa helps us understand the importance of a constitution.
In South Africa, the white minority (oppressors) and the black majority (oppressed) decided to live together as equals in a new democracy.
But it was hard for both groups to trust each other because of past injustice and fear.
Each group wanted to protect its own interests: – The black majority wanted to ensure majority rule and social and economic rights. – The white minority wanted to protect its property and privileges.
After long discussions, both sides agreed to a compromise: – Whites accepted one person, one vote and majority rule. – They also accepted basic rights for poor people and workers. – Blacks agreed that majority rule would not be absolute, and that the property of the white minority would not be taken away.
This compromise was not easy, and people still worried: – What if one side broke the agreement later? – How could they make sure everyone followed the rules?
The answer was to write down the rules clearly so that everyone follows them – this is called a constitution.
What Does a Constitution Do?
A constitution is a set of written rules that everyone in a country agrees to follow.
These rules explain: a) How the leaders (rulers) will be chosen. b) What powers the government will have and what it cannot do. c) What rights the citizens will have.
These rules must be protected so that the winning group in an election can’t easily change them.
This is what South Africans did – they agreed on basic rules that no government can ignore, and these rules became their constitution.
Do Only Countries Need Constitutions?
Not just South Africa – every country needs a constitution because different people have different views and interests.
Even if their differences are not as serious as in South Africa, they still need clear rules to live and work together.
This doesn’t apply only to countries. Clubs, societies, and political parties also need constitutions to function smoothly.
What is a Constitution?
A set of written rules agreed upon by all people in a country. The highest law that:
Defines the relationship between citizens and government.
Defines the relationship among citizens themselves.
Main Functions of a Constitution:
1. Builds Trust and Unity: Helps different groups of people live together peacefully.
2. Explains Government Structure: Tells us how the government will be formed and who will take what decisions.
3. Limits Government Power: Ensures the government does not misuse power and clearly defines the rights of the people.
4. Expresses People’s Dreams: Shows what kind of society people want to create – fair, equal, and just.
Do All Countries Have Constitutions?
Not all countries with constitutions are democratic. But all democratic countries must have a constitution.
Example: – After winning independence from Britain, America created a constitution. – After their revolution, the French people also adopted a democratic constitution.
Since then, it has become common practice for democracies to have a written constitution.
Making of the Indian Constitution
Preamble of the Indian Constitution
The making of the constitution for a huge and diverse country like India was not an easy affair.
The people of India were emerging from the status of subjects to that of citizens.
The country was born through a partition on the basis of religious differences. At least ten lakh people were killed on both sides of the border in partition-related violence.
The British had left it to the rulers of the princely states to decide whether they wanted to merge with India or with Pakistan or remain independent. The merger of these princely states was a difficult and uncertain task.
When the Constitution was being written, the makers of the Constitution had anxieties about the present and the future of the country.
The Path to Constitution
Existing Consensus: Unlike South Africa, India already had a broad agreement on democratic principles before drafting the Constitution.
Foundational Documents: Key documents, like the 1928 Motilal Nehru draft and the 1931 Karachi resolution, laid the groundwork for universal adult franchise and minority rights.
Colonial Experience: The experience with British legislative institutions, especially the 1937 Provincial Legislature elections, helped shape India’s own governance structures.
Global Inspiration: Indian leaderswere influenced by global ideals like the French Revolution and U.S. Bill of Rights but adapted them to suit India’s unique needs.
Thoughtful Adaptation: Years of deliberation ensured that the Constitution was not a mere imitation but a well-considered document tailored for India.
The Constituent Assembly
First Constituent Assembly
The Constitution of India was framed by a Constituent Assembly set up under the Cabinet Mission Plan, of 1946.
The assembly consisted of 389 members representing provinces (292), states (93), the chief commissioner provinces (3) and Baluchistan (1).
Formation: The Constituent Assembly was formed to draft the Indian Constitution. Elections were held in July 1946.
The assembly held its first meeting on December 6, 1946. It elected Dr. Rajendra Prasad as its Chairman. Soon after the country was divided into India and Pakistan.
The Constituent Assembly was also divided into the Constituent Assembly of India and that of Pakistan. The Constituent Assembly that wrote the Indian Constitution had 299 members.
The Assembly adopted the Constitution on 26 November 1949 but it came into effect on January 26, 1950. To mark this day we celebrate January 26 as Republic Day every year.
Try yourself:What is the purpose of a constitution?
A.To establish a democratic government.
B.To determine citizen rights and government powers.
C.To create a good society.
D.To specify the relationship between citizens and the government.
View Solution
Why should we accept the Constitution made by the Constituent Assembly more than 50 years ago?
The Indian Constitution represents the collective agreement of many people at the time, not just a few individuals.
It has been respected and upheld, unlike some countries that had to completely rewrite their constitutions.
No significant group or political party has ever questioned the legitimacy of the Constitution itself, which is quite remarkable.
The Constituent Assembly was not directly elected by all citizens due to the absence of universal suffrage but was elected by members of the Provincial Legislatures.
This ensured a diverse representation from various regions, languages, castes, classes, religions, and occupations.
The assembly worked in an orderly and transparent manner, agreeing on fundamental principles.
A committee headed by Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was responsible for drafting the Constitution.
They meticulously discussed the draft, considering over two thousand amendments.
The discussions were meticulously documented in the ‘Constituent Assembly Debates,’ which span 12 volumes.
These debates provide detailed explanations for each part of the Constitution and assist in its interpretation.
Guiding Values of the Indian Constitution
We will be exploring the specific rules and provisions of the Constitution related to various topics. But before that, it’s important to understand the basic philosophy behind our Constitution. There are two ways to do this: a) By looking at the opinions of key leaders about the Constitution b) By reading what the Constitution itself says.
The Preamble helps us understand this philosophy. Let’s look at both approaches, one at a time.
The Dream and the Promise
You might have noticed that one important name is missing from the list of Constitution makers—Mahatma Gandhi. He was not a part of the Constituent Assembly. However, many members were inspired by his ideas. In 1931, through his magazine Young India, Gandhi had expressed what he hoped the Constitution would achieve which is as follows:
Dr. Ambedkar also dreamed of an India free from all forms of inequality and played a major role in framing the Constitution. However, his approach to tackling inequality differed from that of Mahatma Gandhi. He strongly disagreed with Gandhi’s ideas and often expressed sharp criticism. In his final speech to the Constituent Assembly, he clearly voiced his concerns which is:
Finally, let us turn to Jawaharlal Nehru, giving his famous speech to the Constituent Assembly at the stroke
Philosophy of the Constitution
Values that inspired and guided the freedom struggle and were in turn nurtured by it, formed the foundation for India’s democracy. Given below are the values embedded in the Preamble of the Indian Constitution.
We, the People of India: The Constitution has been drawn up and enacted by the people through their representatives, and not handed down to them by a king or any outside powers.
Sovereign: People have the supreme right to make decisions on internal as well as external matters. No external power can dictate the Government of India.
Socialist: Wealth is generated socially and should be shared equally by society. The government should regulate the ownership of land and industry to reduce socio-economic inequalities.
Secular: Citizens have complete freedom to follow any religion. But there is no official religion. The government treats all religious beliefs and practices with equal respect.
Democratic: A form of government where people enjoy equal political rights, elect their rulers and hold them accountable. The government is run according to some basic rules.
Republic: The head of the state is an elected person and not a hereditary position.
Justice: Citizens cannot be discriminated against on the grounds of caste, religion and gender. Social inequalities have to be reduced. The government should work for the welfare of all, especially of the disadvantaged groups.
Liberty: There are no unreasonable restrictions on the citizens in what they think, how they wish to express their thoughts, and the way they wish to follow up their thoughts in action.
Equality: All are equal before the law. The traditional social inequalities have to be ended. The government should ensure equal opportunity for all.
Fraternity: All of us should behave as if we are members of the same family. No one should treat a fellow citizen as inferior.
Try yourself:Which of the following terms is not included in the Preamble to the Indian Constitution?
A.Liberty
B.Equality
C.Secular
D.Religion
View Solution Institutional Design
A constitution is not just a document that lists values and ideals.
It mainly turns these values into actual systems and rules for running the country.
The Indian Constitution contains detailed instructions about how the government should work.
It is a very long and detailed document.
Because society and people’s needs keep changing, the Constitution needs to be updated regularly.
The people who wrote the Indian Constitution believed that it should match the hopes and changes of society.
They did not treat it as a holy or unchangeable law.
So, they included ways to make changes in the Constitution when needed.
These changes are known as constitutional amendments.
The Constitution uses formal legal language to describe how institutions should work.
If someone reads it for the first time, it might be hard to understand.
However, the basic structure of how it works is not too hard to grasp.
Like other constitutions, the Indian Constitution explains how leaders are chosen to govern the country.
It also explains how much power each leader or group will have and what decisions they can make.
It sets boundaries on the government’s powers by giving citizens certain rights that cannot be taken away.
Some of the members of the Constituent Assembly were:
Difficult Words
Apartheid: A policy or system of segregation or discrimination on grounds of race, which was formerly practiced in South Africa against non-white citizens.
Constituent Assembly: A body composed of members elected to draft or adopt a new constitution or reform an existing one.
Universal Adult Suffrage: The right of citizens in a given society who are entitled to vote in an election to do so; typically, this term refers to all adults, without regard to race, sex, belief, or social status.
Preamble: An introductory statement in a document that explains the document’s purpose and underlying philosophy.
Sovereign: Possessing supreme or ultimate power. In the context of a country, it means independent and having the right to govern itself.
Secular: The principle of separation of the government from religious institutions.
Socialist: In the context of the Indian Constitution, it refers to an economic system where the government or the public as a whole has ownership and control of the means of production and distribution of goods.
Republic: A state in which supreme power is held by the people and their elected representatives, and which has an elected or nominated president rather than a monarch.
Fraternity: A sense of brotherhood and unity among all citizens.
Amendments: Changes or additions that are made to a constitution or a law.
Bill of Rights: A formal declaration of the legal and civil rights of the citizens of any state, country, federation, etc.
Judiciary: The judicial authorities of a country; the system of courts that interprets and applies the law in legal cases.
Multi-party System: A system of government in which multiple political parties have the capacity to gain control of government offices, independently or in coalition.
Parliamentary Democracy: A form of government in which the executive derives its legitimacy from its ability to command the support of the legislature, typically a parliament, to which it is accountable.
Constitutional Monarchy: A system of government in which a monarch (king or queen) acts as the Head of State within the parameters of a constitution.
The word ‘Democracy’ has been derived from the Greek word ‘Democratic’. ‘Demos’ means people and ‘Kratia’ means the rule. So, democracy is the rule by the people. Democracy is a form of government where rulers are elected by the people. A key characteristic of all democracies is that the government is chosen through popular elections.
Why define Democracy?
Understanding Differences: Defining democracy helps distinguish it from non-democratic systems. This distinction is crucial for understanding how different governments operate.
Examples of Non-Democratic Systems: Myanmar: Rulers were not elected by the people; the military took control, leaving citizens without a say. Dictatorships: Leaders like Pinochet in Chile were not elected by the public. Monarchies: Power is typically inherited or seized, rather than elected. The Kings of Saudi Arabia rule not because the people have chosen them to do so but
Here’s a table comparing Democratic and Non-Democratic Governments:
A Simple Definition
A simple definition of democracy is : “Democracy is a form of government in which the rulers are elected by the people”
This basic definition of democracy—”rule by the people”—is insufficient on its own.
While it highlights the concept of people’s rule, applying this definition without careful consideration could mistakenly classify nearly every government with elections as a democracy. Such an interpretation would be misleading and inaccurate.
Features of Democracy
Thesimple definition of democracy gives rise to various questions, which are given below:
Key Questions:
Who are the Rulers? In a democracy, rulers are those elected by the people.
What Constitutes a Democratic Election? A democratic election is free, fair, and allows all eligible citizens to vote and stand for office.
Who Can Elect or Be Elected? All eligible citizens have the right to vote in elections and can run for office.
What Form of Government is Democracy? Democracy is a form of government where power rests with the people and is exercised through elected representatives.
To address these questions fully, we need to examine the features of democracy.Major Decisions by Elected Leaders
A democratic government is one in which the people’s representatives participate in the decision-making process. They own collective responsibility for all the decisions taken by the government.
Dictatorships and Monarchies: Representatives may be elected but lack real decision-making power.
Case Study: Pakistan: Under General Pervez Musharraf, who came to power through a military coup in October 1999, the real power was held by non-elected leaders, despite the presence of an elected parliament and government.
This gives us the first feature of democracy. In a democracy, the final decision-making power must rest with those elected by the people.
Free and Fair Electoral Competition
A Democracy must be based on a Free and Fair Election
Elections in China:
Election Process: China holds elections every five years for its parliament, the National People’s Congress.
Power and Membership: The National People’s Congress appoints the President and includes nearly 3000 members, some elected by the army.
Candidate Approval: Candidates must have the approval of the Chinese Communist Party. In the 2002-03 elections, only members of the Communist Party or allied parties were allowed to run.
Single Party Rule: The Communist Party always forms the government.
Historical Impact: The lack of multi-party elections and an independent press in China may have contributed to issues like the 1958-1961 famine.
Elections in Mexico:
Election History: Since 1930, Mexico has held presidential elections every six years without military or dictatorial rule.
Democratic Shortcomings: Despite regular elections, Mexico was not truly democratic until 2000.
Dominance of PRI:Until 2000, the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) won every election. PRI employed various tactics to ensure victory:
Government Pressure: Government employees were required to attend PRI meetings.
Election Manipulation: Teachers pressured parents to vote for PRI, and media largely ignored or criticized opposition parties.
Polling Booth Issues: Polling booths were sometimes moved last minute, complicating voting for many citizens.
Campaign Spending: PRI spent significant amounts on campaign efforts.
Elections in China vs Elections in Mexico
Here, we have the second feature of Democracy. Democracy must be based on a free and fair election where those currently in power have a fair chance of losing.
Try yourself:What is the Chinese Parliament called?
A. National People’s Congress
B. Chinese Communist Party
C.The Communit party of China
D.Peoples Congress
View Solution
One Person, One Vote, One Value
A true democracy grants its citizens what is called the ‘universal adult franchise’. it means all adults have a right to vote without any discrimination based on sex, colour, race, caste or class.
Each person can cast one vote, all votes are counted, and the person who gets the maximum number of votes gets elected in many countries, this is not how the system works.
There are many instances of denial of equal right to vote (i) In Saudi Arabia, women do not have the right to vote. (ii) Estonia has made its citizenship rules in such a way that people belonging to the Russian minority find it difficult to get the right to vote. (iii) In Fiji, the electoral system is such that the vote of an indigenous Fiji has more value than that of an Indian Fijian.
That gives us the third feature of democracy. In a democracy, each adult citizen must have one vote, and each vote must have one value.
Rule of Law and Respect for Rights
In Zimbabwe, elections are held regularly but are won by only one party, i.e. Zanu-PF. the party uses unfair practices in elections that are against the principles of democracy.
Robert Mugabe has been ruling Zimbabwe since independence.
Over the years, President Mugabe has changed the constitution several times to increase the power of the president and make him less accountable.
In a democracy, people and opposition can criticize the government, but this is not allowed in Zimbabwe.
The government has ignored some court judgments, which are also against the principles of democracy.
Television, radio, and press are controlled by the government.
The example of Zimbabwe shows that popular approval of the rulers is necessary in a democracy, but it is not sufficient. Popular government can be undemocratic. Popular leaders can be autocratic. In a democracy, the state should respect some basic rights of the citizen. They should be free to think, have opinions, express these in public, form associations, protest, and take other political actions.
Everyone should be equal in the eyes of the law. These rights must be protected by an independent judiciary whose orders are obeyed by everyone. A democratic government cannot do whatever it likes simply because it has won an election. It has to respect some basic rules. In particular, it has to respect some guarantees to minorities. Every major decision has to go through a series of consultations.
The fourth and final feature of democracy. A democratic government rules within limits set by constitutional law and citizen’s rights.
Summary Definition
Democracy is a form of government in which:
Rulers elected by the people make all the major decisions.
Elections offer a choice and fair opportunity to the people to change the current rulers.
This choice and opportunity are available to all people on an equal basis.
The exercise of this choice leads to a government limited by basic rules of the constitution and citizens’ rights.
Try yourself:
What is a key feature of a democratic government?
A.Rule by force and a single person.
B.Decision-making by representatives elected by the people.
C.No opposition or criticism allowed.
D.Arbitrary decision-making without any rules.
View SolutionWhy Democracy?Debating Merits of Democracy
A democratic government is a better government because it is a more accountable form of government.
Democracy improves the quality of decision-making.
Democracy provides a method to deal with differences and conflicts.
Democracy enhances the dignity of citizens.
Democracy allows us to correct our own mistakes.
Arguments Against Democracy
Leaders keep changing in a democracy. This leads to instability.
Democracy is all about political competition and power play. There is no scope for morality.
So many people have to be consulted in a democracy, and this leads to delays.
Elected leaders do not know the best interests of the people. It leads to bad decisions.
Democracy leads to corruption, for it is based on electoral competition.
Ordinary people do not know what is good for them; they should not decide anything.
Arguments for Democracy
A democratic government is a better government because it is a more accountable form of government.
Democracy provides a method for the quality of decision-making.
Democracy provides a method to deal with differences and conflicts.
Democracy enhances the dignity of citizens.
Democracy is better than other forms of government because it allows us to correct our own mistakes.
Democracy is considered the best form of government.
Broader Meaning of Democracy
Representative Democracy, its Importance
Representative democracy is one in which people elect their representatives to legislatures. These representatives, in turn, form the government and govern. In this type of democracy, a majority is allowed to make decisions on behalf of all the people.
Representative democracy becomes necessary because of the following reasons: (i) Modern Democracies involve such a large number of people that it is physically impossible for them to sit together and make a collective decision. (ii) Even if they could, the citizens do not have the time, the desire or the skills to take part in all the decisions.
Nominal Democracy and Ideal Democracy
A nominal democracy, as we normally use the term, refers to a system of governance that is run by the people’s elected representatives.
An ideal democracy is a broader concept. An ideal democracy is a system in which every citizen must be able to play an equal role in decision-making. For this, one does not need just an equal right to vote.
Every citizen needs to have equal information, basic education, equal resources and a lot of commitment. There may not be any country in the world that passes this test of democracy. Yet, an understanding of democracy as an ideal reminds us of why we value democracy.
Role of Citizens Played in a Democracy
Citizens Exercising the Right to Vote
Citizens must learn to tolerate the differences and views of all others who disagree with them. That is, the citizens must accept the principle of mutual tolerance and dissent.
Citizens must act with a sense of discipline and responsibility. They have a right to express their dissent. They must express their grievance through channels provided by the democratic system.
Citizens must participate and seek to influence public opinion. This can happen only when they are well-informed on civic matters.
Citizens must exercise their right to vote. This provides a direction to the whole democratic process.
Try yourself:
What must citizens do to influence public opinion?
A.Avoid expressing dissent
B.Agree with everyone
C.Stay informed on civic matters
D.Vote regularly
View Solution
Conclusion
Democracy a Government by Discussion and PersuasionIt is a government by discussion because of the following reasons:
(i) Policy matters are decided after thorough discussion; in the absence of consensus, the majority view prevails. (ii) The majority view is respected and given due consideration during discussion. (iii) The majority view is heard and not shut down by force. It is a government by persuasion because: (i) The opposition is encouraged to participate in debates about government policies and programs. (ii) During the discussion, opponents are persuaded to accept the government’s viewpoint. (iii)At times, the government itself may see merit in what the opposition has to say and accept it.Key Terms
Universal Adult Franchise: The right of all adult citizens to vote, regardless of wealth, income, gender, social status, race, ethnicity, or any other restriction, subject to very few exceptions.
Free and Fair Elections: Elections that are conducted impartially, openly, and in accordance with established laws, where all voters are able to vote freely without coercion, and all votes are counted accurately.
Constitutional Law: A body of law that defines the role, powers, and structure of different entities within a state, namely, the executive, the parliament or legislature, and the judiciary, as well as the basic rights of citizens.
Rule of Law: The principle that all people and institutions are subject to and accountable to law that is fairly applied and enforced.
Electoral Competition: The contest between political parties or candidates for electoral power.
Multi-party System: A system of government in which multiple political parties across the political spectrum run for national election, and all have the capacity to gain control of government offices, separately or in coalition.
Nominal Democracy: A form of democracy where although elections take place and representatives are chosen, many characteristics essential to a functional democracy might be missing, like free media, civil liberties, or meaningful choice between candidates.
Ideal Democracy: A theoretical concept of democracy in which all citizens have equal access to power and education, allowing them to participate fully and effectively in the political process.
Representative Democracy: A type of democracy founded on the principle of elected individuals representing the people, as opposed to direct democracy, where individuals vote on policy initiatives directly.
Popular Government: A government that is elected by and derives its power from the people, as opposed to being inherited or imposed through force.
Constitutional Limits: Legal limits on the powers of government officials or bodies established in a constitution to prevent abuse of power and to protect citizens’ rights.
Opposition Party: A political party that does not form part of the government and is responsible for challenging and providing an alternative to the policies of the government.
Democratic Institutions: Structures, organizations, or mechanisms in a society that work according to democratic processes, like parliaments, local councils, or judicial systems.
Electoral Manipulation: Actions taken by a government or party in power to alter election results or influence the election process in their favour, which can undermine the fairness and free nature of elections.
Q1. What are the processes of population change or growth? Describe them.
Ans: Population change occurs through three main processes:
Birth rates: This is the number of live births per thousand people in a year. In India, birth rates have historically been higher than death rates, contributing significantly to population growth.
Death rates: This refers to the number of deaths per thousand people in a year. The decline in death rates has been a key factor in the growth of India’s population.
Migration: This involves the movement of people, either within the country (internal migration) or across borders (international migration). While internal migration does not change the overall population size, it affects how people are distributed across regions.
Q2. “Distribution of population is uneven in India”. Describe the factors responsible for it.
Ans: Uneven population distribution in India is marked by significant differences in population density across various regions. The factors contributing to this uneven distribution include:
Climate: The western part of Rajasthan has low population density due to extreme temperatures and low rainfall, making it inhospitable. Similarly, cities like Patna, Kanpur, and Kolkata, provide essential resources like drinking water and fertile soil.
Economic Opportunities: Industrial hubs such as Bengaluru, Delhi, and Mumbai attract large populations due to better job prospects. In contrast, areas lacking industries tend to have lower populations.
Transport Connectivity: Regions with well-developed transport systems, including roadways, railways, and waterways, tend to be more densely populated. Efficient transport facilitates the movement and distribution of people.
Q3. Which regions of India have moderate population densities and which regions have high to very high population densities? Why?
Ans: Assam and most of the peninsular states of India have moderate population densities. The following factors contribute to this:
Hilly and rocky terrain
Low to moderate rainfall
Shallow and less fertile soils
In contrast, the Northern plains and Kerala in the south experience high to very high population densities due to:
Flat plains with fertile soils
Abundant rainfall
Q4. The substantial improvement in the health conditions of the Indian population is the result of many factors. What are these factors?
Ans: Health is an important component of population composition, influencing development. Significant improvements in the health conditions of the Indian population are attributed to various factors:
Improvement in public health initiatives.
Prevention of infectious diseases through vaccination and awareness.
Application of modern medical practices for diagnosing and treating ailments.
Q5. What did the National Population policy 2000 do for the adolescent population of India?
Ans: The National Population Policy 2000 recognised adolescents as a crucial demographic requiring focused attention. Key aspects of the policy include:
Nutritional needs: Emphasised the importance of adequate nutrition for adolescents.
Delayed marriage: Promoted programmes encouraging delayed marriage and childbearing.
Sex education: Aimed to educate adolescents about the risks of unprotected sex.
Contraceptive access: Made contraceptive services more accessible and affordable.
Q6. Write a note on India’s population distribution by density.
Ans: Population density gives insight into the uneven distribution of people across India. It is calculated as the number of individuals per unit area. Key points about India’s population density:
India is among the most densely populated countries globally.
In 2011, the population density was 382 persons per sq. km.
Density varies significantly across states: Bihar: 1,102 persons per sq. km, Arunachal Pradesh: only 17 persons per sq. km.
Q7. Look at the following table carefully. What does it indicate? What can be done to turn the sex ratio in favour of females? The Magnitude and Rate of India’s Population Growth
Ans: The table indicates that the sex ratio in India has consistently been unfavourable to females. In 1951, there were 946 females for every 1000 males. This number has declined over the decades, reaching 940 females per 1000 males in 2011. This trend reflects a patriarchal mindset prevalent in society.
To improve the sex ratio in favour of females, the following actions can be taken:
Promote education across all regions of the country.
Encourage awareness about the value of female children.
Implement strict laws against gender discrimination.
Support community programmes that empower women.
Q8. Why is the health situation still in matter of major concern for India?
Ans: Despite significant progress in health conditions in India, several issues remain a major concern:
Low calorie consumption: The average per capita calorie intake is well below recommended levels, leading to widespread malnutrition.
Limited access to clean water: Only one-third of the rural population has access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation.
Healthcare shortages: Many areas lack an adequate number of doctors and nurses, and hospitals are often in poor condition.
Q1: How is soil an important factor for vegetation? Ans: Soil plays a crucial role in determining the type of vegetation that can thrive in a particular area.
Different types of soils provide the foundation for different types of vegetation. For instance, sandy soils in deserts support cacti and thorny bushes, while marshy deltaic soils support mangroves and deltaic vegetation.
The composition, texture, and fertility of soil influence the types of plants that can grow. Well-drained and nutrient-rich soils support lush vegetation, while poor soils may restrict plant growth.
Q2: How do human beings influence the ecology of a region? Ans: Human activities significantly impact the ecology of a region:
Human beings often utilize vegetation and wildlife resources for various purposes, leading to overexploitation and habitat destruction.
Deforestation, habitat destruction, and pollution caused by human activities disrupt ecosystems and lead to ecological imbalances.
Unregulated hunting, poaching, and pollution can lead to the extinction of plant and animal species.
Urbanization, industrialization, and agriculture can alter landscapes, disrupt natural habitats, and affect the overall ecological balance.
Q3: Divide the tropical deciduous forests based on the availability of water. Give a brief description of each of them. Ans: Moist Deciduous Forests:
Found in areas with rainfall between 200 and 100 cm.
Common in the eastern part of India, along the foothills of the Himalayas, and parts of central India.
Dominated by trees like teak, sal, bamboo, shisham, and sandalwood.
Dry Deciduous Forests:
Found in areas with rainfall between 100 and 70 cm.
Common in the rainier parts of the peninsular plateau and the plains of Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.
Trees include teak, sal, peepal, and mem.
Q4: Give a brief description of the wildlife found in the tropical evergreen and tropical deciduous forests. Ans:
Tropical Evergreen Forests:
Common animals: Elephants, monkeys, lemurs, deer.
One-horned rhinoceroses are found in Assam and West Bengal.
Abundance of birds, bats, sloths, scorpions, and snails.
Tropical Deciduous Forests:
Common animals: Lions, tigers, pigs, deer, elephants.
Variety of birds, lizards, snakes, and tortoises.
Q5: Describe the vegetation and wildlife found in mangrove forests. Ans:
Vegetation:
Mangrove tidal forests grow in coastal areas influenced by tides.
Trees like sundari, palm, coconut, keora, and agar are found in deltas of rivers like the Ganga, Mahanadi, Krishna, Godavari, and Kaveri.
Wildlife:
Royal Bengal Tiger is a prominent animal in mangrove forests.
Presence of turtles, crocodiles, gharials, and snakes.
Mangrove ecosystems provide critical breeding and nesting habitats for various species.
Q6: Write briefly about Indian migrating birds. Ans:
India hosts numerous migratory bird species during both summer and winter.
Over a hundred species migrate to India, either for feeding or to escape the harsh winter in their native habitats.
During winter, species like the Siberian Crane and flamingos migrate to India.
Places like the Rann of Kachchh serve as important feeding and breeding grounds for these migratory birds.
Q7: What are the characteristics of trees in deciduous forests? Ans:
Deciduous forests are found in areas with rainfall between 200 cm and 70 cm, with distinct dry seasons.
Trees in these forests shed their leaves for about six to eight weeks during the dry summer.
These trees typically have wide-spreading branches, like neem and mango trees.
Leaves are smaller in size compared to rainforests, helping to reduce transpiration.
Common trees include teak, sal, shisham, and peepal, among others.
Q8: Distinguish between extinct and endangered species. Write three main characteristics of tropical decidous forests.
Q9: Give five characteristics of the Montane forests. Ans:
Altitude-Based Distribution: Montane forests are found in mountainous areas and are characterized by different vegetation belts based on altitude.
Vegetation Zones: There is a succession of vegetation belts as altitude increases, similar to the transition from tropical to tundra regions. Different types of forests and grasslands are encountered at different altitudes.
Wet Temperate Forests: Between 1000 and 2000 meters, wet temperate forests are prevalent. These forests feature evergreen broad-leaf trees like oaks and chestnuts.
Coniferous Forests: At altitudes of 1500 to 3000 meters, temperate forests with coniferous trees such as pine, deodar, and silver fir dominate. These forests are common on southern slopes of the Himalayas and high-altitude areas of southern and northeastern India.
Alpine Vegetation: Above 3600 meters, temperate forests and grasslands give way to Alpine vegetation. Trees like silver fir, junipers, pines, and birches are found, but they become progressively stunted as they approach the snow line. Mosses and lichens dominate at even higher altitudes.
Q10: Describe the characteristics of the tropical evergreen forests of India. Ans:
Rainfall Requirement: Tropical evergreen forests thrive in areas with heavy rainfall, typically exceeding 200 cm annually. These forests experience a short dry season.
Tall Trees and Multilayered Structure: Trees in these forests can reach great heights, often surpassing 60 meters. The forest structure is multilayered, with various plant types, including trees, shrubs, and creepers.
Year-Round Greenery: Due to the absence of a definite leaf-shedding period, these forests maintain their green appearance throughout the year.
Rich Biodiversity: These forests are home to a wide range of flora and fauna. Commercially valuable trees like ebony, mahogany, rosewood, rubber, and cinchona are found here.
Diverse Wildlife: Animals such as elephants, monkeys, lemurs, deer, and one-horned rhinoceroses inhabit these forests. Birds, bats, sloths, scorpions, and snails are also present in abundance.
Q11: Give a brief account of the wildlife found in India. Ans:
Rich Fauna: India boasts a diverse range of fauna, with around 90,000 animal species. The country is home to approximately 2,000 species of birds and 2,546 species of fish.
Iconic Animals: Elephants are found in the wet forests of Assam, Karnataka, and Kerala. The one-horned rhinoceros inhabits swampy lands in Assam and West Bengal.
Desert and Grassland Species: The Rann of Kachchh and Thar Desert are habitats for wild ass and camels respectively. Bison, nilgai, chousingha, gazelle, and various species of deer are also present. Different species of monkeys are widespread.
Himalayan Diversity: The Himalayas host a variety of animals, including the yak, Tibetan antelope, bharal (blue sheep), and wild sheep. High-altitude areas also support species like the shaggy-horned wild ox and Tibetan wild ass.
Aquatic and Avian Life: Rivers, lakes, and coastal areas are home to turtles, crocodiles, and gharials. Birds such as peacocks, pheasants, ducks, cranes, and pigeons are prominent in forests and wetlands.
Q12: In which regions are the thorny forests and scrubs found in India? Mention the characteristics of such type of vegetation. Ans: Thorny forests and scrubs are found in regions with arid and semi-arid conditions, typically receiving less than 70 cm of annual rainfall. These regions include the northwestern part of India, comprising states like Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Uttar Pradesh, and Haryana. Characteristics of Thorny Forests and Scrubs:
Scattered Trees: Trees in these regions are widely spaced due to water scarcity. Their roots penetrate deep into the soil to access moisture.
Succulent Stems: Many plant species have succulent stems, which store water to survive in arid conditions.
Small, Thick Leaves: Leaves are often small and thick, reducing water loss through transpiration.
Xerophytic Adaptations: The plants have xerophytic adaptations to cope with water scarcity, such as reduced leaf surface area and thick cuticles.
Thorny Shrubs: Many shrubs and bushes have thorns as a defense mechanism against herbivores.
These vegetation types are well-adapted to the challenging climatic conditions of arid and semi-arid regions.
Q1: Distinguish between weather and climate. Ans: The difference between weather and climate is a measure of time.
Weather refers to the atmospheric conditions of a specific place over a short period of time, usually 24 hours.
Climate refers to the average atmospheric conditions over a relatively long period of time, usually 30 years.
Weather can change from hour to hour and day to day, but climate represents the long-term patterns and trends of temperature, precipitation, humidity, and other atmospheric factors.
Q2: What are western cyclonic disturbances? Ans: Western cyclonic disturbances are weather phenomena that occur during the winter months and are brought in by westerly flow from the Mediterranean region. These disturbances usually influence the weather of the north and northwestern regions of India. They are characterized by the movement of low-pressure systems in the upper troposphere and are associated with cloudiness, rain, and sometimes snowfall in the northern parts of India.
Q3: What is known as the Southern Oscillation or SO? Mention the feature connected with it. Ans: The Southern Oscillation (SO) refers to the periodic change in pressure conditions over the southern oceans, particularly the tropical eastern South Pacific Ocean and the tropical eastern Indian Ocean. It is characterized by the reversal of pressure conditions, where the eastern Pacific experiences lower pressure compared to the eastern Indian Ocean. This phenomenon is connected with the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO), where warm ocean currents replace cold currents along the Peruvian coast, leading to changes in global weather patterns.
Q4: Withdrawal of the monsoon is a gradual process. Explain. Ans: The withdrawal of the monsoon is a gradual process that begins in the northwestern states of India by early September. By mid-October, it withdraws completely from the northern half of the peninsula. The withdrawal from the southern half of the peninsula is fairly rapid, and by early December, the monsoon has withdrawn from the rest of the country. This gradual retreat is influenced by the movement of the monsoon trough and the changing pressure systems.
Q5: The breaks in the monsoon are related to the movement of the monsoon trough. Explain. Ans: The breaks in the monsoon are related to the movement of the monsoon trough, which is an elongated low-pressure area in the lower troposphere. The axis of the monsoon trough can shift northward or southward, influencing the spatial distribution of rainfall. When the trough’s axis lies over the plains, there is good rainfall in those areas. However, when the axis shifts closer to the Himalayas, dry spells occur in the plains, while rainfall increases in the mountainous catchment areas of the Himalayan rivers.
Q6: How do the frequency and intensity of tropical depressions determine the amount and duration of monsoon rains? Ans: Tropical depressions, which form over the Bay of Bengal, play a significant role in the monsoon rains. These depressions follow the axis of the monsoon trough and bring moisture-laden winds from the ocean. The frequency and intensity of these depressions can influence the amount and duration of monsoon rains. More frequent and intense depressions can lead to heavy rainfall, while their absence or weaker formation can result in dry spells and drought conditions during the monsoon season.
Q7: Give a brief description of the distribution of rainfall in India. Ans: The distribution of rainfall in India is uneven:
Western coast and northeastern India receive over 400 cm of rainfall annually.
Rainfall is less than 60 cm in western Rajasthan, parts of Gujarat, Haryana, and Punjab.
The interior of the Deccan plateau and the east of the Sahyadris also receive low rainfall.
Some areas, like Leh in Jammu and Kashmir, receive low precipitation.
The rest of the country receives moderate rainfall, with snowfall occurring mainly in the Himalayan region.
Q8: What do you mean by the southwest monsoon? Explain in brief. Ans: The southwest monsoon refers to the seasonal wind pattern that brings moist air from the Indian Ocean to the Indian subcontinent during the summer months. The intense heating of the Thar Desert and adjoining areas leads to the formation of a low-pressure area, drawing moisture-laden winds from the ocean. These winds are blocked by the Himalayas, causing them to rise, cool, and condense, leading to precipitation. The south-west monsoon is responsible for the majority of India’s rainfall.
Q9: What is known as the North East Monsoon or Retreating Monsoon? Explain in brief. Ans: The North East Monsoon, also known as the Retreating Monsoon, occurs around September when the northern landmass of the Indian subcontinent begins to cool rapidly. Cold winds from the Himalayas and Indo-Gangetic Plain sweep down towards the Indian Ocean south of the Deccan peninsula. This wind pattern brings rainfall to the southeastern coast of India, particularly Tamil Nadu, during the retreating monsoon period.
Q10: What are the characteristic features of retreating monsoon? Ans: Following are the characteristics features of retreating monsoon:
During October-November, with the apparent movement of the sun towards the south, the monsoon trough or the low-pressure trough over the northern plains becomes weaker. This is gradually replaced by a high-pressure system. The southwest monsoon winds weaken and start withdrawing gradually. By the beginning of October, the monsoon withdraws from the northern plains.
The months of October-November are a period of transition from hot-rainy season to dry winter conditions. The retreat of the monsoon is marked by clear skies and a rise in temperature.
While day temperatures are high, nights are cool and pleasant. The land is still moist. Owing to the conditions of high temperature and humidity, the weather becomes rather oppressive
during the day. In the second half of October, the mercury begins to fall rapidly in northern India.
The low-pressure conditions over north-western India get transferred to the Bay of Bengal by early November. This shift is associated with the occurrence of cyclonic depressions, which originate over the Andaman Sea. These cyclones generally cross the eastern coasts of India and cause heavy and widespread rain.
Q11: Describe briefly what you know about the onset of monsoon and its withdrawal. Ans:
The climate of India is described as the monsoon type. The monsoons are not steady winds but are pulsating in nature, affected by different atmospheric conditions encountered by it, on its way over the warm tropical seas. The duration of the monsoon is between 100—120 days from early June to mid-September.
The monsoon generally arrives at the southern tip of the Indian peninsula by the first week of June. Subsequently, it proceeds into two—the Arabian Sea branch and the Bay of Bengal branch.
The Arabian Sea branch reaches Mumbai about ten days later, on approximately the 10th of June. This is a fairly rapid advance. The Bay of Bengal branch also advances rapidly and arrives in Assam in the first week of June. The lofty mountains cause the monsoon winds to deflect towards the west over the Ganga plains.
By mid-June, the Arabian Sea branch of the monsoon arrives over Saurashtra-Kuchchh and the central part of the country.
The Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal branches of the monsoon merge over the northwestern part of the Ganga plains and cause rainfall. By mid-July, the monsoon reaches Himachal Pradesh
and the rest of the country.
The withdrawal of the monsoon begins in the north-western states of India by early September. By mid-October, it withdraws completely from the northern half of the peninsula.
Q12: What are the factors that affect India’s climate? Describe them. Ans: The factors affecting the climate of India are—latitude, altitude pressure and winds. Here is a brief description of these factors:
Latitude: India’s climate has characteristics of tropical as well as sub-tropical climates. The Tropic of Cancer passes through the middle of the country. Almost half of the country, lying south of the Tropic of Cancer, belongs to the tropical area. All the remaining area, north of the Tropic, lies in the sub-tropics.
Altitudes: The Himalayas prevent the cold winds from Central Asia from entering the subcontinent. It is because of these mountains that this sub-continent experiences comparatively milder winters than Central Asia.
Pressure and winds: The pressure and wind conditions over India are unique. During winter, there is a high-pressure area north of the Himalayas. Cold, dry winds blow from this region to the low-pressure areas over the oceans to the south. In summer, a low-pressure area develops over interior Asia as well as over northwestern India. This causes a complete reversal of the direction of winds during summer.
Air moves from the high-pressure area over the southern Indian Ocean, in a south-easterly direction, crosses the equator, and turns right towards the low-pressure areas over the Indian subcontinent. These are known as the southwest monsoon winds, which bring widespread rainfall over the mainland of India. The upper air circulation, western cyclonic disturbances and tropical cyclones also affect India’s climate.
Q13: Give a brief description of the controls that affect India’s climate. Ans: There are six major controls that affect the climate of India—latitude, altitude, pressure, and wind system, distance from the sea, ocean currents, and relief features. Here is a brief description of all these climatic controls:
Latitude: Due to the curvature of the earth, the amount of solar energy received varies according to latitude. As a result, air temperature generally decreases from the equator towards the poles.
Altitude: At higher altitudes, the atmosphere becomes less dense, and temperature decreases. The hills are, therefore, cooler during summer.
Pressure and wind system: It depends on the latitude and altitude of the place. Thus, it influences the temperature and rainfall pattern.
Distance from the sea: The sea exerts a moderating influence on climate. As the distance from the sea increases, its moderating influence decreases, and people experience extreme weather conditions.
Ocean currents: Ocean currents, along with onshore winds, affect the climate of the coastal areas. For example, any coastal area with warm or cold currents flowing past it will be warmed or cooled if the winds are onshore.
Relief: It also determines the climate of a plane. High mountains act as barriers to cold or hot winds; they may also cause precipitation if they are high enough and lie in the path of rain-bearing winds. The leeward side of the mountains remains relatively dry.
Q14: State the factors that help in understanding the mechanism of monsoon. Ans: The following factors help us understand the mechanism of monsoon:
The differential heating and cooling of land and water creates low pressure on India’s landmass while the seas around experience comparatively high pressure.
The shift of the position of the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) over the Ganga plain in summer. This is the equatorial trough normally positioned about 5°N of the equator. It is also known as the monsoon trough during the monsoon season.
The presence of the high-pressure area, east of Madagascar, approximately 20°S over the Indian Ocean. The intensity and position of this high-pressure area affects the Indian monsoon.
The Tibetan plateau gets intensely heated during summer, which results in strong vertical air currents and the formation of low pressure over the plateau at about 9 km above sea level.
The movement of the westerly jet stream to the north of the Himalayas and the presence of the tropical easterly jet stream over the Indian peninsula during summer.
The changes in pressure conditions over the southern oceans also affect the monsoons.
Q15: Differentiate between southwest monsoon and northeast monsoon. Ans:
The south-west summer monsoons occur from July through September. The Thar Desert and adjoining areas of the northern and central Indian subcontinent heat up considerably during the hot summers.
This causes a low-pressure area over the northern and central Indian sub-continent. To fill this void, the moisture-laden winds from the Indian Ocean rush into the subcontinent.
These winds, rich in moisture, are drawn towards the Himalayas, which block the winds passing into Central Asia and force them to rise. As the clouds rise, their temperature drops and precipitation occurs. Some areas of the subcontinent receive up to 10,000 mm of rain annually.
Q1: Why are the Peninsular rivers seasonal in nature? Ans: The Peninsular rivers are seasonal in nature because their flow is highly dependent on rainfall unlike the Himalayan rivers which are perennial. Most of the peninsular rivers flow through the plateaus and low hills devoid of snow. The peninsular rivers have shorter and shallower courses as compared to the Himalayan rivers. Such rivers fail to contain water for longer periods. When it rains good, they have ample water but when it is dry season, even the large rivers have reduced flow of water in their channels.
Q2: Give the features of the Himalayan rivers. Ans: Most of the Himalayan rivers are perennial. It means that they have water throughout the year. The Himalayan rivers have long courses from their source to the sea. They perform intensive erosional activity in their upper courses and carry huge loads of silt and sand. In the middle and lower courses, these rivers form meanders, Ox-bow lakes and many other depositional features in their floodplain. They also have well-developed deltas.
Q3: Give some of the similarities between the Himalayan rivers and Peninsular rivers. Ans: Although the Himalayan rivers differ from the Peninsular rivers in many ways, they have some similarities too:
Both the river systems have their large drainage basins.
Both make deltas at their mouths.
The rivers of both the regions are joined by many tributaries as a result of which the main river gets ample water and silt.
Q4: Describe the following drainage patterns of streams: (i) Radial (ii) Dendrite (iii) Trellis (iv) Rectangular Ans:
Radial: The radial pattern develops when streams flow in different directions from a central peak or dome-like structure.
Dendrite: The dendritic pattern develops where the river channel follows the slope of the terrain. The stream with its tributaries resembles the branches of a tree, thus the name dendritic.
Trellis: A trellis drainage pattern develops where hard and soft rocks exist parallel to each other. A river joined by its tributaries, at approximately right angles, develops a trellis pattern.
Rectangular: A rectangular drainage pattern develops on a strongly jointed rocky terrain.
Q5: Which three river systems form the Himalayan river system? Describe briefly any one of them. Ans: The three river systems that form the Himalayan river system are:
The Indus river system
The Ganga river system
The Brahmaputra river system
The Brahmaputra rises in Tibet, east of Mansarovar lake very close to the sources of the Indus and the Satluj. Most of its course lies outside India. It flows eastwards parallel to the Himalayas. It enters India in Arunachal Pradesh through a gorge. Here, it is joined by several tributaries such as the Dibang, the Lohit to form the Brahmaputra in Assam. In the Indian part, the river passes through a region of high rainfall and therefore it carries a large volume of water and silt. It has a braided channel in its entire length in Assam and forms many riverine islands. Every year during the rainy season, the river overflows its banks, causing widespread devastation due to floods in Assam and Bangladesh.
Q6: Where does river Brahmaputra rise? Where does it enter into India? Name two of its tributaries. Ans: River Brahmaputra rises in Tibet, east of Mansarovar lake very close to the sources of the Indus and the Satluj. It enters India in Arunachal Pradesh through a gorge. Two of its tributaries are—The Dibang and the Lohit.
Q7: What is the difference between tributary and distributary? Write any three points of distinction. Ans:
A tributary and a distributary are both bodies of freshwater that eventually meet with or diverge from rivers, but they differ in the direction that they flow.
A tributary is a stream that flows into a larger river. A distributary is a stream that splits off from a larger river and flows in a different direction.
A tributary increases the volume of water of the main river whereas a distributary decreases the volume of water of the main river. Example: the Yamuna is the tributary of the Ganga, whereas the Hooghly is the distributary of the Ganga.
Q8: Describe three important characteristics of Sundarbans Delta. Ans:
It is the world’s largest and fastest-growing delta.
It is also the home of Royal Bengal tigers.
Sundarbans Delta derived its name from the Sundari tree which grows well in marshland.
Q9: Describe the three main features of the Narmada basin. Ans:
It flows towards the west in a rift valley formed due to faulting. On its way to the sea, the Narmada creates many picturesque locations.
All the tributaries of the Narmada are very short and most of these join the main stream at right angles.
The Narmada basin extends over states of Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. It is bounded by the Vindhyas on the north, by the Maikala range on the east, by the Satpuras on the south and by the Arabian Sea on the west.
Q10: Define drainage basin and describe two patterns of drainage in India. Ans:
Drainage basin: The area drained by a single river system is called a drainage basin.
Radial: The radial pattern develops when streams flow in different directions from a central peak or dome-like structure.
Dendritic: The dendritic pattern develops where the river channel follows the slope of the terrain. The stream with its tributaries resembles the branches of a tree, thus the name dendritic.
Q11: Where does the river Narmada originate? Name any two picturesque locations formed by it. Ans: The Narmada rises in the Amarkantak hills in Madhya Pradesh. It flows towards the west in a rift valley formed due to faulting. The ‘Marble rocks’ near Jabalpur where the Narmada flows through a deep gorge, and the ‘Dhuadhar falls’ where the river plunges over steep rocks, are some of notable picturesque locations.
Q12: Where does the river Indus rise from? What is its length? Write any two tributaries of river Indus. Ans: The river Indus rises in Tibet, near lake Mansarovar, flowing west, it enters India in the Ladakh district of Jammu and Kashmir. The total length of the river is 2900 km. Two tributaries of the Indus are – the Zaskar and the Nubra.
Q13: Where does the river Tapi originate? Write its main features. Ans:
The Tapi is one of the major peninsular rivers which rises in the Satpura ranges, in the Betul district of Madhya Pradesh. The main features of this river basin are given below:
It flows in a rift valley parallel to the Narmada but it is much shorter in length. Its basin covers parts of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and Maharashtra.
It has two well-defined physical regions, i.e., the hilly regions and the plains. The hilly regions are well-forested while the plains are broad and fertile areas suitable for cultivation.
Q14: Describe important features of the Mahanadi basin. Give three factual pieces of information about the Mahanadi basin. Ans: The Mahanadi is one of the major peninsular rivers which rise in the highlands of Chhattisgarh. It flows through Odisha to reach the Bay of Bengal. The total length of the river is about 860 km. Its drainage basin is shared by Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Odisha.
Q15: Where does the river Kaveri originate? What is its total length? Name its main tributaries. Ans: The Kaveri rises in the Brahmagri range of the Western Ghats and it reaches the Bay of Bengal in the south of Cuddalore, in Tamil Nadu. The total length of the river is about 760 km. The main tributaries of this river are—Amravati, Bhavani, Hemavati, and Kabini. Its basin drains parts of Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu.
Q16: Describe important features of the Krishna basin. Ans: The Krishna is an important peninsular river. It rises from a spring near Mahabaleshwar and flows for about 1400 km and drains into the Bay of Bengal. The Tungabhadra, the Koyana, the Ghatprabha, the Musi, and the Bhima are some of its tributaries. Its drainage basin is shared by Maharashtra, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh.
Q17: Which two peninsular rivers form estuaries? Name the states in which these rivers drain the water. Ans: The two peninsular rivers that form estuaries are the Narmada and the Tapi. The Narmada drains into Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat. The Tapi drains into Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and Maharashtra.
Q18: Why do the Himalayan rivers get flooded every year? Mention the main advantages of these rivers. Ans: The Himalayan rivers are perennial having water throughout the year. These rivers receive water from melted snow from the lofty mountains. They also receive abundant water from rainfall during the rainy season. So, they get flooded every year. The Himalayan rivers have great advantages:
They have longer courses and they carry more sediments in them enriching the soil of the northern plains for extensive agriculture.
They have great potential for hydro power making irrigation and navigation easy.
Q19: Why are the peninsular rivers not navigable? Ans: The Peninsular rivers are mostly seasonal in nature. The flow of these rivers depends upon rainfall and they usually get dried up in the summer. River beds are uneven, rocky, and have sharp slopes. Dams cannot be constructed on these rivers. These reasons make peninsular rivers not navigable.
Q20: Give a brief description of freshwater lakes found in India. Ans: Most of the freshwater lakes are located in the Himalayan regions. They are of glacial origin. They formed when glaciers dug out a basin, which was later filled with snowmelt. The Wular lake in Jammu and Kashmir is the largest freshwater lake in India. It is the result of tectonic activity. The Dal lake, Bhimtal, Nainital, Loktak, and Barapani are some other important freshwater lakes in our country.
Q21: Describe how the lakes found in India differ from each other in size, and other characteristics. Ans: There are many lakes in India. These differ from each other in size, and other characteristics:
Most lakes are permanent while some contain water only during the rainy season, like the lakes in the basins of inland drainage of semi-arid regions.
Some lakes are the result of the action of glaciers and ice-sheets; while the others have been formed by wind, river action, and human activities.
A meandering river across a floodplain forms cut-offs that later develop into Ox-box lakes.
Q22: Which is the largest peninsular river? Describe some of its important features. Ans: The Godavari is the largest peninsular river. Some of its important features are:
It rises from the slopes of the Western Ghats in the Nasik district of Maharashtra. Its length is about 1500 km.
It drains into the Bay of Bengal. Its drainage basin also the largest among the peninsular rivers.
The basin covers parts of Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.
The Godavari is joined by a number of tributaries such as the Puma, the Wardha, the Pranhita, the Manjra, the Wainganga and the Penganga. The last three tributaries are very large.
The Godavari river is also known as the ‘Dakshin Ganga’ since it is largest Peninsular river like the large Himalayan river. It is like the Ganga river in the south so it is also called he ‘Dakshin Ganga’.
Q23: Describe the important characteristics of the Brahmaputra river system. Ans: The three river systems that form the Himalayan river system are:
The Indus river system
The Ganga river system
The Brahmaputra river system
The Brahmaputra rises in the Tibet, east of Mansarovar lake very close to the sources of the Indus and the Satluj. Most of its course lies outside India. It flows eastwards parallel to the Himalayas. It enters India in Arunachal Pradesh through a gorge. Here, it is joined by several tributaries such as the Dibang, the Lohit to form the Brahmaputra in Assam. In Indian part, the river passes through a region of high rainfall and therefore it carries a large volume of water and silt. It has a branded channel in its entire length in Assam and forms many riverine islands. Every year during the rainy season, the river overflows its banks, causing widespread devastation due to floods in Assam and Bangladesh.
Q24: Give the main features of the Ganga river system. Ans: The Ganga river system consists of the master river Ganga and a large number of its tributaries such as the Yamuna, the Ghaghara, the Gandak and the Kosi. The main features of this river system are:
This system drains a very large area comprising the middle part of the Himalayas in the north, the northern part of the India plateau in the south and the Ganga plain in between Needless to say that the Ganga plain is one of the most fertile plains of the world.
The Ganga originates as Bhagirathi from the Gangotri glacier in Uttar Kashi district of Uttarakhand at an elevation of 7,010 m. Alaknanda joins it at Devaprayag.
After travelling 280 km from its source, the Ganga reaches Haridwar, debouches from the hills and enters plain area. From here it flows in south and south-east direction for a distance of 770 km to reach Allahabad. Here it is joined by the Yamuna which is the main tributary.
Enlarged with the waters from its right and left bank tributaries, The Ganga flows eastwards till Farakka in West Bengal. Subsequently, It flows southwards into Bangladesh and is joined by the Brahmaputra. Further down stream, it is known as the Meghna. This mighty river, with waters from the Ganga and the Brahmaputra, flows into the Bay of Bengal.
The length of the Ganga is over 2500 km. Its basis is the most heavily populated in the world with over 400 million people living here.
Q25: Which are the major Himalayan rivers? Give a brief description of the Indus river system. Ans:
The major Himalayan rivers are the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. The Indus river is one of the beautiful rivers of India. Together with its tributaries such as the Satluj, the Beas, the Ravi, the Chenab and the Jhelum, the Indus river forms an important river system, which helps in the development of Indian economy.
The river Indus originates near the Mansarovar lake in the Tibetan plateau, on the northern slopes of the Kailash mountain range. Flowing west, it enters India in the Ladakh district of Jammu and Kashmir. Subsequently, the river gets into Pakistan through Balistan and Gilgit, running across the north in a southward route down the entire span of Pakistan, to join the Arabian Sea, east of Karachi, The Indus plain has a very gentle slope.
The total length of the river is 2900 km. It is also the longest river in Pakistan. A little over a third of the Indus basin is located in India in the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and the Punjab and the rest is in Pakistan.
Q1: “The land of India displays great physical variations”.Justify the Statement. Ans: The land of India exhibits significant physical variationsacross its regions:
The Himalayas: These mountains are vital sources of water and forest resources.
The Northern Plains: Known for their fertile land, they support early civilisations and intensive agriculture.
The Plateau: Rich in minerals, it has been crucial for the country’s industrialisation.
The Coastal Plains: These areas are important for fishing and port activities.
Each of these regions contributes uniquely to India’s diverse geography and resources.
Q2: Describe the Formation of the Northern Plains? Ans: The Northern Plainsof India were formed through a combination of geological processes:
The uplift of the Himalayas from the Tethys Sea created a large basin in the northern region.
Over centuries, this basin filled with sediments deposited by rivers flowing from the northern mountains and the Peninsular Plateau.
This led to the creation of a flat land rich in alluvial deposits, resulting in the fertile Northern Plains.
The plains cover an area of approximately 7 lakh sq. km, stretching about 2400 km in length and 240 to 320 km in width.
Q3: Mention any four features of Peninsular Plateau. Ans: The Peninsular Plateau has several distinct features:
Old Rocks: It consists of ancient crystalline, igneous, and metamorphic rocks.
Geological Formation: Formed from the breaking and drifting of the Gondwana land, making it one of the oldest landmasses.
Topography: Characterised by broad, shallow valleys and rounded hills.
Divisions: It is divided into two main parts: the Central Highlands and the Deccan Plateau.
Q4: What are the features of Western Ghats? Ans: Features of the Western Ghats:
Located on the west coast of India.
Narrow and unbroken range.
Highest peak is Anai Mudi.
Source of major rivers like Krishna, Godavari, and Kaveri.
Continuous range crossed only through passes.
Q5: Explain the formation of Himalayas. Ans: The Himalayas were formed through a process called continental collision. This occurred when the Indian plate collided with the Eurasian plate, leading to the following key points:
The collision began around 50 million years ago and continues today.
This process caused the land to fold and uplift, creating the mountain range.
The Himalayas are primarily composed of sedimentary rocks that were pushed upwards.
They stretch approximately 2,400 kilometres from west to east.
The range includes several parallel ranges, with the Great Himalayas being the highest.
These mountains are home to some of the world’s tallest peaks, including Mount Everest.
In summary, the formation of the Himalayas is a result of tectonic activity that continues to shape this majestic mountain range.
Q6: Name any three features of Central Highlands? Ans: Features of Central Highlands:
The Vindhyan Range is located to the south of the Central Highlands, while the Aravalis are to the northwest.
The Central Highlands are narrower in the east and wider in the west.
The Chota Nagpur Plateau is the eastern extension of this region, drained by the Damodar River.
Q7: Name any three features of Coastal Plains. Ans: Features of Coastal Plains:
The Western coast is a narrow plain located between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea, divided into three sections.
The northern section is known as Konkan, the central part is called Kannad, and the southern section is referred to as Malabar.
Lake Chilika is the largest saltwater lake in India and an important feature along the eastern coast.
Q8: Name any four features of Lakshadweep Islands. Ans: Features of the Lakshadweep Islands:
The Lakshadweep Islands consist of a group of small coral islands.
Previously known as Laccadive, Minicoy, and Amindive, they were renamed Lakshadweep in 1973.
This island group covers a small area of 32 sq km.
Pitti Island is uninhabited and features a bird sanctuary.
Q9: Describe how the northern plains of India were formed. Ans: The northern plainsof India were formed through a combination of geological processes:
The uplift of the Himalayas from the Tethys Sea created a large basin.
This basin gradually filled with sediments deposited by rivers flowing from the Himalayas and the peninsular plateau.
Over time, these deposits formed a flat expanse of alluvial soil, resulting in the fertile northern plains.
The plains cover an area of approximately 7 lakh square kilometres and are vital for agriculture due to their rich soil and water supply.
Q10: Describe physical variations that the land of India displays. Ans: The land of India showcases a remarkable variety of physical features, including:
Mountains: The Himalayas are young, fold mountains that stretch across the northern border, featuring high peaks, deep valleys, and fast-flowing rivers.
Plains: The Northern Plains are formed from alluvial deposits, making them fertile and densely populated.
Plateaus: The Peninsular Plateau consists of ancient igneous and metamorphic rocks, characterised by gently rising hills and wide valleys.
Deserts: The Great Indian Desert is an undulating sandy plain, known for its sand dunes.
Coastal Plains: These plains border the Arabian Sea on the west and the Bay of Bengal on the east, featuring rich biodiversity.
Islands: India has two main groups of islands: the Lakshadweep Islands and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, which have unique ecosystems.
Each of these features contributes to India’s diverse geography and rich natural resources.
Q11: Give some prominent features of the Himalayan mountains. Ans: The Himalayas are a young and rugged mountain range located along the northern borders of India. Here are some of their key features:
They stretch approximately 2,400 km from west to east, with varying widths.
The average height of the peaks in the Great Himalayas is around 6,000 metres.
The Himalayas consist of three main ranges: the Great Himalayas, the Lesser Himalayas, and the Shiwaliks.
They are home to some of the world’s highest peaks, including Mount Everest and Kanchenjunga.
The region features deep valleys and fast-flowing rivers, contributing to its youthful topography.
Q12: What are the features of the Great or Inner Himalayas or the Himadri? Ans: The northernmost range of the Himalayas is known as the Great Himalayas or Himadri. Its features include:
The most continuous range, featuring the highest peaks with an average height of 6,000 metres. It includes all the prominent Himalayan peaks.
The folds of the Great Himalayas are asymmetrical in nature, with a core primarily made of granite.
This range is perennially snowbound, and numerous glaciers descend from it.
Q13: What is known as Himachal or lesser Himalaya? Mention some of the features of this mountain system. Ans: The mountain range located south of the Himadri is referred to as the Himachal or lesser Himalaya. Key features of this mountain system include:
The ranges are primarily made up of highly compressed and altered rocks.
Altitude ranges from 3,700 to 4,500 metres, with an average width of 50 km.
The Pir Panjal range is the longest and most significant range, alongside the Dhaula Dhar and Mahabharat ranges.
This region encompasses the famous Kashmir Valley, as well as the Kangra and Kullu Valleys in Himachal Pradesh, known for their hill stations.
Q14: Mention some of the features of the Shivalik Hills. Ans: The Shivalik Hills is a mountain range that forms part of the outer Himalayas. Here are some key features of this range:
The Shivalik Hills extend approximately 2,400 km, starting near the Indus River and ending close to the Brahmaputra, with a 90 km gap between the Teesta and Raidak rivers in Assam.
They vary in width from 10 to 50 km and have an average elevation of 1,500 to 2,000 m.
The hills are primarily made up of unconsolidated sediments that have been deposited by rivers flowing from the main Himalayan ranges to the north.
The valleys in this region are covered with thick layers of gravel and alluvium.
Longitudinal valleys between the Lesser Himalaya and the Shivalik are known as Duns, with notable examples including Dehra Dun, Kotli Dun, and Patli Dun.
Q15: Into which three sections is the northern plain divided? Describe them briefly. Ans: The northern plain is divided into three main sections:
The Punjab Plains: This region is located in the western part of the northern plain. It is formed by the Indus River and its tributaries, including the Jhelum, Chenab, Beas, Ravi, and Satluj. Most of this plain is situated in Pakistan and is characterised by the presence of doabs.
The Ganga Plains: This section stretches between the Ghaggar and Teesta rivers. It covers several states in North India, including Haryana, Delhi, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, parts of Jharkhand, and West Bengal.
The Brahmaputra Plains: Located in the eastern part of the northern plain, this area is primarily found in Assam.
Q16: Which group of islands is located in the Arabian Sea? Give features of these islands. Ans: The Lakshadweep Islands group is situated in the Arabian Sea and consists of several notable features:
Composition: The group comprises 36 islands, previously known as Laccadive, Minicoy, and Amindive, before being renamed Lakshadweep in 1973.
Location: These islands are located near the Malabar coast of Kerala and are primarily small coral islands.
Area: The total area of Lakshadweep is approximately 32 sq km, with Kavaratti serving as the administrative headquarters.
Diversity: The islands boast a rich variety of flora and fauna. Notably, Pitti Island, which is uninhabited, features a bird sanctuary.
Q17: How are coral reefs formed? Give examples. Ans: Coral reefs are formed by marine invertebrates known as coral polyps, which live in large colonies. These organisms thrive in:
Shallow, warm waters free of mud.
They secrete a hard substance called calcium carbonate.
Their secretions and skeletons accumulate to create coral deposits.
There are three main types of coral reefs:
Barrier reefs
Fringing reefs
Atolls
A notable example is the Great Barrier Reef in Australia, which is the largest living structure on Earth and can even be seen from space. Atolls are typically circular or horse-shoe shaped coral formations.
Q18: Write a brief note on the Deccan Trap. Ans: The Deccan Traprefers to a significant geological feature in India, primarily known for its black soil. Here are some key points:
The Deccan Traps are a vast igneous province located on the Deccan Plateau in west-central India.
It is one of the largest volcanic features on Earth, consisting of multiple layers of solidified flood basalt.
The thickness of these layers exceeds 2,000 metres, covering an area of approximately 500,000 km².
The total volume of the Deccan Traps is around 512,000 km³.
Q19: What is the peninsular plateau? Describe it highlighting its features. Ans: The peninsular plateau is a tableland. It is composed of the old crystalline, igneous and metamorphic rocks. It is considered the oldest landmass as it was formed due to the drifting of the Gondwana land. The plateau consists of broad and shallow valleys and rounded hills. The peninsular plateau can be divided into two regions:
(i) The Central Highlands (ii) The Deccan Plateau (i) The Central Highlands:
Located north of the Narmada river, this area includes a significant part of the Malwa plateau.
It is bordered by the Vindhya range to the south and the Aravalis to the northwest, merging into the sandy and rocky desert of Rajasthan to the west.
The rivers in this region, including the Chambal, Sind, Betwa, and Ken, flow from southwest to northeast, indicating the slope.
The Central Highlands are wider in the west and narrower in the east.
The eastern section is known as the Chotanagpur plateau, through which the Damodar river flows.
(ii) The Deccan Plateau:
This triangular landmass lies south of the Narmada river, with the Godavari river and its tributaries draining most of its northern part.
The Satpura range forms its northern base, while the Mahadev, Kaimur hills, and Maikal range extend to the east.
The Deccan Plateau is higher in the west and gently slopes eastwards.
The Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats define its western and eastern boundaries, respectively. The Western Ghats run parallel to the western coast and are continuous, accessible only through passes.
A notable feature of the peninsular plateau is the black soil area known as the Deccan Trap, which is of volcanic origin.
Q20: Explain the main features of the Deccan plateau. Ans: The Deccan Plateau is a significant geographical feature in India, characterised by its unique structure and composition.
Triangular Landmass: The plateau is shaped like a triangle and is located south of the Narmada River.
Drainage: Most of the northern area is drained by the Godavari River and its tributaries, which originate in the Western Ghats and flow east towards the Bay of Bengal.
Surrounding Ranges: The northern base is flanked by the Satpura Range, while the Mahadev, Kaimur Hills, and Maikal Range extend to the east.
Elevation: The plateau is higher in the west and gradually slopes down towards the east.
Ghats: The Western Ghats and Eastern Ghats define the western and eastern boundaries, respectively. The Western Ghats run parallel to the western coast and are continuous, with only a few passes for crossing.
Soil Type: A notable feature of the plateau is the black soil region known as the Deccan Trap, which is of volcanic origin.
Q21: Compare Western and Eastern Himalayas. Ans: Comparison of Western and Eastern Himalayas
Height: The Western Himalayas are generally higher than the Eastern Himalayas.
Precipitation: The Eastern Himalayas receive significantly more rainfall, resulting in greater greenery.
Geographical Spread: The Western Himalayas cover states like Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and Uttar Pradesh. In contrast, the Eastern Himalayas span states such as West Bengal, Sikkim, and Arunachal Pradesh.
Hill Stations: Popular hill stations in the Western Himalayas include Shimla, Kullu Manali, and Srinagar. The Eastern Himalayas are known for Darjeeling and Shillong.
Natural Disasters: Earthquakes and landslides are more frequent in the Eastern Himalayas compared to the Western Himalayas.
Main Rivers: The Indus and Satluj rivers flow through the Western Himalayas, draining into the Arabian Sea. The Brahmaputra is the primary river of the Eastern Himalayas, flowing into the Bay of Bengal.
Q22: Describe the division of the Himalayas on the basis of regions from west to east. Ans: The Himalayas are divided into distinct regions from west to east, primarily based on river valleys:
Punjab Himalaya: This region lies between the Indus and Satluj rivers. It is also known as Kashmir in the west and Himachal Himalaya in the east.
Kumaon Himalayas: Located between the Satluj and Kali rivers, this area is known for its scenic beauty.
Nepal Himalayas: This section is defined by the Kali and Teesta rivers.
Assam Himalayas: Found between the Teesta and Dihang rivers, this region is rich in biodiversity.
Purvachal: The easternmost part of the Himalayas, marked by the Brahmaputra river. Beyond the Dihang gorge, the mountains curve southward and are referred to as the Purvachal or the Eastern hills and mountains. This area includes the Patkai, Naga, Manipur, and Mizo hills.
Q23: Describe the longitudinal divisions of the Himalayas. Ans: The Himalayas are divided into three main longitudinal ranges:
Great Himalayas (Himadri)
It is the highest range, with peaks averaging 6,000 metres.
Contains all significant Himalayan peaks.
The folds are asymmetrical, primarily composed of granite.
This range is covered in snow year-round, with numerous glaciers.
Himachal (Lesser Himalayas)
Composed of highly compressed and altered rocks.
Altitude ranges from 3,700 to 4,500 metres, with an average width of 50 km.
The Pir Panjal range is the longest and most significant.
Includes famous valleys like Kashmir, Kangra, and Kullu, known for their hill stations.
Shivalik Hills (Outer Himalayas)
This range stretches approximately 2,400 km from the Indus to the Brahmaputra.
Width varies from 10 to 50 km, with an elevation of 1,500 to 2,000 m.
Composed of unconsolidated sediments from rivers flowing from the higher ranges.
Valleys here, known as Duns, include Dehra Dun, Kotli Dun, and Patli Dun.
In addition to these divisions, the Himalayas are also categorised regionally based on river valleys:
The section between the Indus and Satluj rivers is called the Punjab Himalaya.
The area between the Satluj and Kali rivers is known as the Kumaon Himalayas.
The Kali and Teesta rivers mark the boundary of the Nepal Himalayas.
Beyond the Dihang gorge, the Himalayas bend southward, forming the Purvachal or Eastern hills.
Short Answer Type Question. Q1. How did India’s contact with the rest of the world contribute to the exchanging of ideas and commodities? Explain. Ans: India’s interactions with the world have greatly influenced the exchange of ideas and commodities. Key contributions include:
The teachings of the Upanishads, Ramayana, and Gita have spread globally.
Indian numerals and the decimal system were introduced to Europe through Arab traders.
Ancient land routes facilitated the exchange of various goods, including spices and textiles.
Influences from other cultures, such as Greek sculpture and architectural styles, have enriched Indian heritage.
Q2. Why has India adopted a standard meridian of India with an odd value of 82°30’E? Ans: The Standard Meridian of India is set at 82°30’E for several reasons:
It is located nearly in the centre of India.
This meridian divides the country into two time zones of about 7°30′ each, which is a common practice worldwide.
Using this standard ensures a uniform time across the nation.
Q3. Explain why Ahmedabad and Kolkata can see the noon sun exactly overhead in a year but not Delhi? Ans:Ahmedabad and Kolkata can experience the noon sun directly overhead, while Delhi cannot. This is due to their different latitudes:
Ahmedabad: 23°N
Kolkata: 22.5°N
Delhi: 28°N
Both Ahmedabad and Kolkata are located within the Tropic of Cancer, where the sun is directly overhead during the Northern solstice. In contrast, Delhi’s higher latitude means the sun is never directly overhead there.
Q4. Why is the Indian Ocean named after India? Give three reasons. Ans: India is linked to the Indian Ocean for several key reasons:
Long coastline: India has the longest coastline along the Indian Ocean compared to any other country.
Strategic location: Its central position in Asia makes India strategically important for trade and navigation.
Geographical significance: The Deccan Plateau extends into the Indian Ocean, further enhancing its importance.
Q5. What is the latitudinal extent of India? What are its implications? Ans: The Indian Union extends from approximately 8°04’N to 37°06’N latitude. Implications of this latitudinal extent include:
The southern region receives more sunlight than the northern areas.
Annual rainfall is generally lower in the south compared to the north.
There is a time difference of two hours from Gujarat to Arunachal Pradesh.
The duration of day and night varies as one moves from south to north.
Q6. How India’s longitudinal extent is helpful for India? Ans: India’s geographical location plays a vital role in its maritime trade:
It is centrally positioned in the eastern hemisphere, along major trade routes.
This location has encouraged strong cultural and commercial links with various Asian countries.
India’s extensive coastline along the Indian Ocean improves its connectivity with regions such as West Asia, Africa, and Europe.
Q7. Why is the difference between the durations of day and night hardly felt at Koodankulam but not in Kashmir? Ans: Koodankulam, located just 9° from the equator, experiences minimal variation in the duration of day and night. This is because the equator receives direct sunlight throughout the year.
In contrast, Kashmir, situated 37° from the equator, has a significant difference in day and night durations, averaging about 5 hours variation.
Q8. State the reason for the time lag between sunrise on the easternmost and the westernmost horizons of India. Ans: The easternmost longitude of India is 97° 25′ E in Arunachal Pradesh, while the westernmost is 68° 7′ E in Gujarat. This creates a longitudinal span of approximately 30°, which means about 30 longitudes stretch from east to west across India.
There is a time difference of 4 minutes for each consecutive longitude.
For 30 longitudes, the total time difference is 30 x 4 = 120 minutes or 2 hours.
As a result, there is a time lag of two hours in local time between Arunachal Pradesh and Gujarat.
Q9. Give a brief description of India’s neighbours. Ans: India shares its land borders with:
Pakistan and Afghanistan in the northwest,
China (Tibet), Nepal, and Bhutan in the north,
Myanmar and Bangladesh in the east.
To the south, across the sea, India has two island neighbours:
Sri Lanka, separated by the Palk Strait and the Gulf of Mannar,
Maldives, located south of the Lakshadweep Islands.
Q10. Give a brief description of the size of India’s landmass. Ans: The land mass of India spans an area of 3.28 million square km, which is about 2.4% of the world’s total geographical area. This makes India the seventh-largest country in the world.
India has a land boundary of approximately 15,200 km.
The total length of the coastline, including the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep, is 7,516.6 km.
From north to south, India measures 3,214 km, and from east to west, it measures 2,933 km.
Q11. How would you justify the naming of the Indian Ocean after India? Ans: The naming of the Indian Ocean after India can be justified by several key points:
The Indian landmass is centrally located between East and West Asia.
The Deccan Peninsula extends into the Indian Ocean, promoting close contact with regions like West Asia, Africa, and Europe to the west, as well as Southeast and East Asia to the east.
India has the longest coastline along the Indian Ocean, underscoring its significant geographical position.
Q12. Describe the Location of India. Ans:India is located entirely in the Northern Hemisphere. Its mainland extends between:
Latitudes: 8° 4′ N to 37° 6′ N
Longitudes: 68° 7′ E to 97° 25′ E
The Tropic of Cancer at 23° 30′ N nearly divides the country into two equal halves. The following islands are near the mainland:
Andaman and Nicobar Islands to the southeast
Lakshadweep Islands to the southwest
These islands are located in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea, respectively.
Long Answer Type Question
Q1. Describe the geographical importance of India. Ans:India holds a significant geographical position at the crossroads of four continents: Asia, Europe, Africa, and Australia. This location provides several advantages:
Access to the Indian Ocean: With a long coastline, India benefits from extensive maritime trade.
Control of Trade Routes: Its strategic position allows India to oversee important sea routes.
Climate Regulation: The Himalayas block cold northern winds, moderating winter temperatures and influencing monsoon patterns.
Military Strength: Natural features like the Himalayas and the Indian Ocean enhance India’s military and naval capabilities.
Overall, India’s unique geographical location supports trade, climate stability, and national defence.
Q2. What was the significance of India’s central location in ancient times? Ans: The central location of India at the head of the Indian Ocean is significant for several reasons:
India is strategically positioned along the Trans Indian Ocean routes, connecting Europe to East Asia.
The Deccan Peninsula extends into the Indian Ocean, enhancing contact with West Asia, Africa, and Europe from the west, and with Southeast and East Asia from the east.
India boasts the longest coastline along the Indian Ocean, underscoring its prominent regional position.
Historical connections with the world have been strong, with land routes established before maritime links.
Mountain passes in the north facilitated ancient travel, while oceans limited interactions for a long time.
These routes enabled the exchange of ideas and goods, spreading concepts like the Upanishads, the Ramayana, and the decimal system globally.
India exported spices, muslin, and other goods, while also absorbing influences from cultures such as Greek sculpture and architectural styles from West Asia.
Q3. Describe the location and size of India. Ans:Location and Size of India
India covers a land area of 3.28 million square kilometres.
This is about 2.4% of the world’s total geographical area.
It is the seventh largest country in the world.
India has a land boundary of approximately 15,200 km.
The total length of the coastline, including the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep, is 7,516.6 km.
Geographically:
India measures 3,214 km from north to south and 2,933 km from east to west.
The country lies entirely in the Northern Hemisphere.
It extends between latitudes 8°04’N and 37°06’N, and longitudes 68°07’E and 97°25’E.
The Tropic of Cancer (23°30’N) divides India into almost two equal parts.
Q4. Write a note on the location and size of India? Ans:Location:
India is a vast country situated in the eastern hemisphere.
The mainland extends from latitudes 8°04’N to 37°06’N and longitudes 68°07’E to 97°25’E.
The Tropic of Cancer (23°30’N) divides the country into two nearly equal halves.
To the southeast and southwest, you will find the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the Lakshadweep Islands.
Size:
India covers a total land area of 3.28 million square kilometres.
This accounts for about 2.4% of the world’s total land area.
It is the seventh largest country globally.
India has a land boundary of approximately 15,200 km.
The total length of the coastline, including islands, is 7,516.6 km.
Q1: What does the census of India provide us? Ans: The census of India provides us with information regarding the population of our country.
Q2: What is the trend of migration in India? Ans: In India, most migrations have been from rural to urban areas because of the ‘push’ factor in rural areas.
Q3: When was the first Census held in India? Ans: In India, the first Census was held in the year 1872.
Q4: Which age group is considered economically productive in the study of population? Ans: People generally between 15 to 59 years are considered economically productive.
Q5: What is the population of Lakshadweep? Ans: It is only 64,429 people.
Q6: Which is the biggest state in terms of area? Ans: In terms of area, Rajasthan is the biggest state.
Q7: Name two countries which have higher average population densities than India. Ans: Bangladesh and Japan.
Q8: What was the population density of India in the year 2001? Ans: It was 324 persons per sq. km.
Q9: Name two states with population densities below 250 persons per sq. km. Ans: Odisha and Rajasthan.
Q10: Name two states which have population density below 100 persons per sq. km. Ans: Jammu and Kashmir and Arunachal Pradesh.
Q11: Mention two factors responsible for sparse population in certain areas. Ans: Rugged terrain, and Unfavourable climatic conditions.
Q12: Name two states of the Northern Plains with high population densities. Ans: Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal.
Q13: What does population growth refer to? Ans: Population growth refers to the change in the number of inhabitants of a country/territory during a specific period of time, say during the last ten years.
Q14: The population of a nation is generally grouped into three broad categories. Mention them. Ans: Children generally below 15 years, Working age 15 to 59 years, Aged above 59 years.
Q15: What do you mean by sex ratio? Ans: Sex ratio is defined as the number of females per 1000 males in the population.
Q16: Name five states where about half of India’s population lives in. Ans: Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Bihar, West Bengal, and Andhra Pradesh.
Q17: What is the share of adolescent population in India? Ans: Adolescent population constitutes one-fifth of the total population of India.
Q18: What is meant by life expectancy? Ans: Life expectancy refers to the average number of years one is expected to live.
