Text Book Solutions All Class

Q.1. Discuss the rise of commercial forestry under the colonial governments.

Ans. 

• British Concern for Forest Preservation: The British recognized the vital role of forests in shipbuilding and railway construction but feared local exploitation and reckless logging by traders could lead to forest destruction.
• Appointment of Dietrich Brandis: Seeking solutions, the British appointed German forestry expert Dietrich Brandis as the first Inspector General of Forests in India.
• Introduction of Scientific Forestry: Brandis advocated for a systematic forest management system, including legal regulations to restrict tree felling and grazing to preserve forests for timber production.
• Establishment of Indian Forest Service and Forest Research Institute: In 1864, Brandis established the Indian Forest Service and contributed to formulating the Indian Forest Act of 1865. The Imperial Forest Research Institute was founded in Dehradun in 1906 to promote research and education in forestry.
• Criticism of Scientific Forestry: The practice of scientific forestry, characterized by replacing diverse natural forests with monoculture plantations, has drawn criticism from ecologists and others who question its scientific basis and ecological impact.

Q.2. How did the new forest laws affect the forest dwellers? 

Ans. Divergent Perspectives on Forest Management:

• Foresters and villagers held contrasting views on the ideal forest composition.
• Villagers preferred forests with diverse species to meet various needs like fuel, fodder, and leaves.
• The forest department prioritized trees suitable for shipbuilding and railway construction, such as teak and sal, resulting in the promotion of specific species while others were cut down.

Impact of New Forest Laws:

• The implementation of new forest laws caused significant hardship for villagers nationwide.
• Everyday practices like woodcutting for housing, grazing cattle, collecting fruits, roots, hunting, and fishing became illegal under the Forest Act.

Consequences for Villagers:

• Villagers resorted to stealing wood from forests due to the prohibition on their customary activities.
• Those caught faced extortion by forest guards, leading to increased vulnerability and exploitation.
• Women collecting fuel wood faced heightened concerns and uncertainties due to the legal restrictions.

Harassment by Authorities:

• Police constables and forest guards often harassed villagers, demanding free food as bribes.
• This abuse of power further exacerbated the challenges faced by local communities, deepening their mistrust and resentment towards forest authorities.

Q.3. “The introduction of extremely exploitatives and oppressive policies proved to be a disaster.” With reference to Bastar 
 (a) What were these policies?
 (b) What were the consequences of these policies?

Ans. (a) 

Colonial Government’s Forest Reservation Proposal:

• In 1905, the colonial government proposed reserving two-thirds of the forest area, aiming to cease shifting cultivation, hunting, and forest produce collection.

Concerns of the People of Bastar:

• Residents of Bastar expressed deep concern over the government’s proposal.
• Some villages were permitted to remain within reserved forests under the condition of providing free labor for tree cutting, transportation, and forest protection, leading to the establishment of forest villages.

Displacement and Discontent:

• Many villages faced displacement without prior notice or compensation due to the forest reservation policy.
• Villagers had long endured increased land rents and demands for unpaid labor and goods from colonial officials.
• The devastating famines of 1899-1900 and 1907-1908 compounded the villagers’ hardships.

Impact of Reservations:

• The forest reservations acted as the final blow, exacerbating the already dire situation for the villagers.

(b) 

Emergence of Dissent and Discussion:

• People began gathering in village councils, marketplaces, and festivals to discuss grievances and issues related to forest reservation.
• The initiative originated from the Dhruvas of the Kanger forest, where the first reservation occurred.

Role of Gunda Dhur and the Rebellion Movement:

• Gunda Dhur from village Nethanar emerged as a significant figure in the 1910 movement.
• Messages circulated between villages, symbolized by mango boughs, earth clumps, chillies, and arrows, inviting villagers to rebel against British rule.
• Villages contributed to rebellion expenses, leading to looting of markets, burning and robbing of officials’ houses, schools, and police stations, and redistribution of grain.

British Response and Suppression:

• British authorities deployed troops to suppress the rebellion.
• Despite attempts at negotiation by Adivasi leaders, the British surrounded their camps and opened fire.
• Troops marched through villages, punishing participants with floggings and other penalties.

Outcome of the Rebellion:

• The rebellion lasted for three months before British forces regained control.
• Gunda Dhur evaded capture, symbolizing a victory for the rebels.
• As a result, work on forest reservation was temporarily halted, and the reserved area was reduced to its pre-1910 planned size.

Q.4. How did the transformation in the forest management during the colonial period affect the following?
 (a) Pastoral communities
 (b) Shifting cultivators

Ans. During the colonial period, the British recognized the strategic importance of Indian forests for shipbuilding and the rapid expansion of railway networks. However, they were concerned about uncontrolled local use of forests and excessive logging by traders, which they believed would lead to the destruction of forest resources.

To address these concerns, the British government appointed Dietrich Brandis, a German forest expert, as the first Inspector General of Forests in India. He advocated for the implementation of a scientific forest management system and the training of officials in conservation science.

As part of this new policy:

• Strict regulations were introduced to control tree felling and grazing.
• Violators were punished under new forest laws.
• In 1864, the Indian Forest Service was established.
• The Indian Forest Act of 1865 was passed to provide legal backing to forest control measures.
• Later, in 1906, the Imperial Forest Research Institute was set up in Dehradun to promote forest research and professional training.

These changes had a profound impact on various forest-dependent communities:

(a) Impact on Pastoral Communities:

• Before the forest laws, pastoral and nomadic communities depended on forests for grazing and hunting animals like deer and partridge.
• After the introduction of these laws, hunting and grazing were banned, and violators were punished as poachers.
• Some communities were unjustly labelled as “criminal tribes” and were forced to work in colonial factories, mines, or plantations under strict supervision.
• These restrictions severely disrupted their traditional ways of life and economic independence.

(b) Impact on Shifting Cultivators:

• European officials viewed shifting cultivation as harmful, as it involved burning forest areas and temporarily using land for cultivation.
• They feared that the burning of forests could damage valuable timber and that land left fallow wouldn’t support tree growth for railway use.
• Also, the irregular pattern of shifting cultivation made it difficult for the British to calculate taxes.
• As a result, the practice was banned, and shifting cultivators were displaced from their traditional lands.
• Some were forced to find alternative livelihoods, while others resisted these changes through small and large-scale rebellions.

Q.5. How did the following contribute towards the decline of forest cover in India between 1880-1920? (CBSE 2010)
 (a) Railways and shipbuilding
 (b) Commercial farming

Ans. (a) (1) Railways : The spread of railways from 1850s created a new demand. Railways were essential for successful colonial control, administration, trade and movement of troops. Thus to run locomotives, (a) wood was needed as fuel (b) and to lay railway lines as sleepers were essential to hold tracks together. As the railway tracks spread throughout India, larger and larger number of trees were felled. Forests around the railway tracks started disappearing fast.

(2) Shipbuilding : UK had the largest colonial empire in the world. Shortage of oak forests created a great timber problem for the shipbuilding of England. For the Royal Navy, large wooden boats, ships, courtyards for shipping etc., trees from Indian forests were being felled on massive scale from the 1820s or 1830s to export large quantities of timber from India. Thus the forest cover of the subcontinent declined rapidly. 

(b) Commercial Farming : Large areas of natural forest were also cleared to make space for the plantations or commercial farming. Jute, rubber, indigo, tobacco etc. were the commercial crops that were planted to meet Britain’s growing need for these commodities. The British colonial government took over the forests and gave of a vast area and exported it to Europe. Large areas of forests were cleared on the hilly slopes to plant tea or coffee. This also contributed to the decline of the forest cover in India.

Q.6. How was colonial management of forests in Bastar similar to that of Java? 

Ans. 

• The colonial government imposed new forest laws according to which two-thirds of the forests were reserved. Shifting cultivation, hunting and collection of forest produce was banned. 
• Most people in forest villages were displaced without notice or compensation. 
• In the same way, when the Dutch gained control over the forests in Java, they enacted forest laws, restricting villagers’ access to forests. Now wood could only be cut for specific purposes and from specific forests under close supervision. 
• Villagers were punished for grazing cattle, transporting wood without a permit or travelling on forest road with horse-carts or cattle.
• Permits were issued to the villagers for entry into forests and collection of forest products.
• Both followed a system of forestry which was known as scientific forestry.

Q.7. What new trends and developments have affected the forestry of today?

OR

Discuss the new developments in forestry after the 1980s.

Ans.

• Since the 1980s, governments in Asia and Africa have acknowledged the emergence of conflicts stemming from scientific forestry practices and policies that alienate forest communities from forest areas.
• There has been a shift towards prioritizing forest conservation over timber extraction as a primary objective of forest management.
• Recognizing the importance of involving communities living near forests in conservation efforts, governments have begun to reassess their approaches.
• In many regions of India, such as Mizoram and Kerala, the preservation of dense forests owes much to the active protection by local villagers in sacred groves known by various names like sarnas, devarakudu, kau, rai, etc.
• Some villages have adopted community-based forest patrolling, with households taking turns, as an alternative to relying solely on forest guards for protection.
• Presently, local forest communities and environmentalists are exploring diverse models of forest management aimed at ensuring sustainable conservation practices.

Q.8. What is shifting cultivation? Why did the European foresters regard this practice as harmful for the forests? 

Ans. Meaning of Shifting Cultivation:

• Shifting cultivation, also known as swidden agriculture, is a traditional farming practice prevalent in various regions of Asia, Africa, and South America.
• It is known by different local names such as lading, milpa, chitemene, tavy, and chena, among others, depending on the region.
• In India, terms like dhya, penda, bewar, nevad, jhum, podu, khandad, and kumri are used to refer to shifting cultivation.

Reasons why shifting cultivation was regarded as harmful by European foresters:  

• Shifting cultivation involves cutting and burning parts of the forest in rotation, followed by sowing seeds in the ashes after the first monsoon rains, with the crop being harvested by October-November. These plots are cultivated for a few years before being left fallow for 12 to 18 years to allow the forest to regenerate.
• The practice often involves growing a mixture of crops, such as millets in central India and Africa, manioc in Brazil, and maize and beans in other parts of Latin America.
• European foresters viewed shifting cultivation as detrimental to forests, as the land used for cultivation periodically could not support the growth of trees suitable for railway timber.
• There was also a risk of forest fires spreading and damaging valuable timber when forests were burnt for cultivation.
• Additionally, the practice made it challenging for the government to assess and collect taxes effectively.
• Consequently, the colonial government imposed bans on shifting cultivation, leading to the forced displacement of many forest-dwelling communities.
• Some communities had to adapt to alternative occupations, while others resisted the bans through various forms of rebellion, both large and small.

Q.9. Where is Bastar located? Discuss its history and its people. 

Ans. 

• Bastar is situated in the southern part of Chhattisgarh and borders Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. The river Indrawati flows from east to west across Bastar. The central part of Bastar is a plateau. To the north of this plateau is the Chhattisgarh plain and to its south is the Godavari plain.
• The people of Bastar believe that each village was bestowed land by the earth and hence they offer something in return during agricultural celebrations. 
• Apart from the earth the people of Bastar show reverence to the spirits of rivers, forests and the mountains. Different communities such as Maria and Muria Gonds, Dhurwas, Bhatras and Halbas practise common customs and beliefs but speak different dialects. Each village is well aware of its boundaries. They look after and preserve their natural resources. 
• There exists a give and take relationship among the communities. If a village wants some forest produce from another village a small price is paid before taking it. This price is called ‘dhand’ or ‘man’ or ‘devsari’. 
• Villagers engage watchmen to look after their forests for a price. This price is collected from all the families. 
• There is a large annual gathering — a big hunt where the headmen of all the villages in a ‘pargana’ (a group of villages) meet and discuss matters that concern them.

Q.10. Why did the people of Bastar rise in revolt against the British? Explain. 

Ans. (i) In 1905, the colonial government imposed laws to reserve two-thirds of the forests, stop shifting cultivation, hunting and collection of forest produce. People of many villages were displaced without any natice or compensation.

(ii) For long, villagers had been suffering from increased land rents and frequent demands for free labour and goods by colonial officials.

(iii) The terrible famines in 1899–1900 and again in 1907–1908 made the life of people miserable. They blamed the colonial rule for their sorry plight.

(iv) The initiative of rebellion was taken by the Dhurwas of the Kanger forest, where reservation first took place. Gunda Dhur was an important leader of the rebellion.

Q.11. How forest of Java were affected by Dutch colonialists? Describe how farms for rice cultivation in Java expanded? 

Ans. 

• The Dutch initiated forest management in Java, Indonesia, with the primary objective of obtaining timber for shipbuilding purposes, similar to the British.
• Forest control by the Dutch began in the 18th century, culminating in their dominance over Java’s forests.
• In 1770, the Kalangs rebelled against Dutch control by attacking a fort at Joana, but the rebellion was quelled by Dutch forces.
• Forest laws were enacted by the Dutch in the 19th century, limiting villagers’ access to forests and imposing restrictions on woodcutting for specific purposes under strict supervision.
• Villagers faced penalties for various infractions such as grazing cattle in young forest areas, unauthorized wood transportation, or using forest roads with carts or cattle.
• Initially, the Dutch imposed rents on cultivated forest land, but later exempted some villages from these rents under the ‘blandongdiensten’ system, which required collective labor and buffaloes for timber cutting and transportation.
• Over time, rent exemption was replaced with small wages for forest villagers, albeit with restricted rights to cultivate forest land.
• Java transitioned into a renowned rice-producing region in Indonesia after gaining independence from colonial rule, witnessing extensive development of rice farms.

Q.12. Describe four provisions of the Forest Act of 1878. 

Ans. (i) The Forest Act of 1878 divided forests into three categories : reserved, protected and village forests.
(ii) The best forests were called ‘reserved forests’.
(iii) Villagers could not take anything from reserved forests, even for their own use.
(iv) For house building or fuel, they could take wood from protected or village forests.

Q.13. Explain how did the First World War and the Second World War have a major impact on forests? 

Ans. The First and Second World Wars significantly affected forests in the following ways: 

• In India, working plans for forests were abandoned, and the forest department extensively cut trees to fulfill British war requirements.
• The Dutch in Java adopted a ‘scorched earth’ policy, destroying sawmills and burning large teak logs to prevent them from being seized by the Japanese.
• The Japanese exploited forests irresponsibly for their war industries, compelling forest villagers to participate in deforestation.
• In Indonesia, many villagers took advantage of the wartime chaos to expand cultivation in the forests.
• After the wars, Indonesian authorities faced challenges in reclaiming the forest land that had been used for cultivation.

Q.14. Who was appointed as the first Inspector General of Forests in India? Explain any three reforms introduced by him. 

Ans. A German forest expert, Dietrich Brandis, was made the first Inspector General of Forests in India.
(i) Brandis introduced a proper system to manage the forests and people had to be trained in the science of conservation. This system needed legal sanction and so rules about the use of forests had to be framed.
(ii) Felling of trees and grazing had to be restricted so that forests could be preserved for timber production. Trespassers had to be punished.
(iii) Brandis set up the Indian Forest Service in 1864 and helped formulate the Indian Forest Act of 1865. The Imperial Forest Research Institute was set up at Dehradun in 1906. The system they taught here was called ‘scientific forestry’.

Dietrich Brandis

Q.15. How did commercial farming led to a decline in forest cover during colonial period? 

Ans. 

• Commercial farming during the colonial period contributed to a decline in forest cover.
• Natural forests with diverse tree species were cleared.
• Monoculture plantations were established, where only one type of tree was planted in straight rows.
• Forest officials conducted surveys to estimate the area covered by different types of trees.
• Working plans for forest management were developed, determining the annual cutting quota for plantation areas.
• Deforested areas were replanted, but often with the same monoculture species, leading to the destruction of natural forest cover on a large scale.

Q.16. How did the local people look after and protect the forests in Bastar region? 

Ans. 

• In the Bastar region, the local people respected the spiritual significance of the natural elements, including the river, forest, and mountain.
• Each village was aware of its boundaries and took responsibility for protecting the natural resources within those boundaries.
• Villagers maintained a system where if wood was needed from another village’s forest, a small fee called “devsari,” “dand,” or “man” was paid in exchange.
• Watchmen were hired by some villages to safeguard the forests, with each household contributing grain to compensate them for their services.
• Annually, a significant gathering known as the “big hunt” took place, where the headmen of villages within a “pargana” convened to discuss various issues, including matters related to the forests.

Q.17. Mention the causes of deforestation in India under the colonial rule. 

Ans. Deforestation witnessed a significant surge during colonial rule, characterized by systematic and extensive clearing of forests.Colonial expansion led to a rapid increase in cultivation for various purposes:

• The British administration actively promoted the cultivation of cash crops such as jute, sugar, wheat, and cotton. The heightened demand for these crops during the 19th century drove the clearing of forests to cater to Europe’s requirements for both food grains and raw materials essential for industrial growth.
• The advent of railways from around 1850 brought about a new demand for timber. Wood became indispensable for fueling locomotives and as sleepers for laying railway tracks, leading to an accelerated depletion of forests.
• The railway network witnessed rapid expansion from the 1860s onwards, with approximately 25,500 km of track laid by 1890.
• Contracts were awarded by the government to individuals for timber procurement, resulting in a rapid disappearance of forests in areas surrounding railway tracks.
• Large swathes of natural forests were cleared to make way for tea, coffee, and rubber plantations, fulfilling Europe’s increasing demand for these commodities.

Q.18. Why did commercial forestry become important during the British rule ? 

Ans.

• Commercial forestry gained importance during British rule due to the depletion of oak forests in England by the early nineteenth century, posing a threat to timber supply for the Royal Navy.
• The construction of English ships relied heavily on a consistent provision of robust timber, critical for safeguarding and maintaining imperial power through naval strength.
• Prior to 1850, commercial forestry in India was recognized as crucial, prompted by the need to address England’s timber scarcity. Exploration teams dispatched in the 1820s surveyed India’s forest resources, endorsing the potential for commercial forestry.
• Subsequently, within a short span, significant deforestation occurred in India, with extensive tree felling and substantial timber exports, driven by the green signal given for commercial forestry by exploration parties.
• The advent of railways in the 1850s further fueled demand for wood. The colonial government in India recognized railways as indispensable for effective internal administration, colonial trade facilitation, and swift movement of imperial troops, necessitating wood for locomotive fuel and sleepers for track stability.

Q1. Discuss the main characteristic features of pastoralism.

Ans: Pastoralism is a lifestyle where people raise animals like sheep, goats, and cows, moving to find fresh grass and water. Here are the main features:

• Nomadic Lifestyle: Pastoralists frequently relocate to find good pastures and avoid harsh weather, ensuring their animals remain healthy.
• Diverse Activities: Many pastoralists also engage in farming, trading, and other activities to support their livelihoods.
• Environmental Benefits: Their movement allows land to recover, preventing overgrazing and promoting plant regrowth.
• Adaptation to Regions: This lifestyle is ideal for hilly and dry areas where traditional farming is challenging, allowing them to utilise various resources.
• Role as Traders: Pastoralists often travel long distances to trade goods like cattle for grain, fodder, and other supplies.

Q2. Discuss the factors on which the life of pastoralists depends.

Ans: Pastoralists inhabit diverse terrains, including villages, plateaus, deserts, and forest edges. Their survival relies on several key factors:

• Movement Timing: They possess a keen understanding of when to remain in one location and when to relocate.
• Resource Location: Pastoralists are skilled at finding food and water for their herds.
• Seasonal Awareness: They time their movements according to seasonal changes and weather patterns.
• Farmer Relationships: They establish connections with farmers, trading goods such as milk, ghee, animal skins, and wool for grains and other essentials.

Q3. Elaborate on the seasonal movement of Dhangars of Maharashtra.

Ans: The Dhangars of Maharashtra follow a seasonal movement pattern:

• Monsoon Season: They remain in the central plateau, grazing and cultivating crops like bajra.
• Post-Monsoon: By October, they harvest their crops and migrate to the fertile Konkan region. Here, local farmers welcome them, as their flocks help fertilise the fields and feed on leftover stubble.
• Pre-Monsoon: They stay in Konkan until the monsoon begins, receiving rice from the farmers before returning to the plateau.

Q4. Describe the various facets of pastoralism in Africa.

Ans: African pastoralism encompasses various communities, including the Bedouins, Berbers, and Maasai. Key aspects include:

• They raise cattle, camels, goats, and sheep, selling products like milk, meat, skins, and wool.
• Some combine pastoralism with farming or engage in trade and transport to enhance their income.
• The colonial and post-colonial eras brought significant changes, including reduced pasture lands and restrictions on movement due to new laws.

Q5. Compare and contrast the life of wealthy pastoralists with that of poor pastoralists in Africa.

Ans:

Wealthy Pastoralists:

• They accumulate wealth by owning more animals and land.
• They have diversified incomes and can afford to live in towns.
• Families often manage livestock while engaging in trade.
• They are better equipped to survive wars and droughts.

Poor Pastoralists:

• Their lives rely solely on livestock.
• They lack resources to cope with crises, leading to significant losses during wars and famine.
• Many seek work in towns or take on menial jobs, such as charcoal burning.
• Some find more stable employment in construction.

Q6. Comment on the closure of the forests to grazing from the standpoint of (a) a forester (b) a pastoralist.

Ans:

A forester:

• Foresters believe that restricting access to forests is essential to prevent over-exploitation.
• They aim to preserve valuable timber for construction, such as ships and railways.
• Foresters argue that pastoralists should be barred from forests to maintain ecological balance and ensure a steady supply of timber.

A pastoralist:

• Pastoralists feel that the closure of forests deprives them of vital resources like fuel, fodder, fruits, and medicinal herbs.
• The restrictions on grazing significantly impact their traditional way of life.
• Pastoralists are forced to seek alternative means of livelihood due to the loss of access to these essential resources.

Q7. Give two examples to illustrate how the pastoral nomads adjust to seasonal changes and make effective use of available pastures in different places.

Ans: Gaddi Shepherds of Himachal Pradesh:

• They migrate from low hills to higher altitudes with the seasons.
• During winter, they graze in scrub forests.
• In summer, they move to mountain meadows.
• They time their movements to align with crop cycles, ensuring access to pastures.

Gujjar Bakarwals of Jammu and Kashmir:

• They spend winters in the low Siwalik hills.
• In summer, they migrate to the lush valleys of Kashmir.
• Their movements are based on pasture availability and avoiding harsh weather.

Q8. Discuss the lifestyle of the following pastoralists (a) The Gollas of Andhra Pradesh (b) Banjaras of Punjab (c) Raikas of Rajasthan.

Ans: Gollas: The Gollas are primarily cattle herders. Their movement is influenced by the monsoon and dry seasons. During the dry period, they migrate to coastal areas but leave when the rains begin, as their cattle cannot endure the wet conditions. They return to the dry plateau during the monsoon. The Gollas live near forests, cultivate small plots of land, and engage in trade.

Banjaras: The Banjaras are a nomadic group that travels in search of new pasture land. They cover long distances, selling cattle and goods to villagers in exchange for grain and fodder.

Raikas: The Raikas reside in Rajasthan, a region with limited rainfall. Due to inconsistent harvests, they combine pastoralism with agriculture. During the monsoon, they find sufficient pasture at home, but as October approaches, they seek water and grazing land elsewhere, returning only with the next monsoon.

Q9. What effect did the colonial rule have on the pastoralists? How did this happen?

Ans: Colonial rule significantly changed the lives of pastoralists in several ways:

• Land Control: The British expanded agriculture, reducing pastures through Wasteland Rules, which converted uncultivated land into farmland.
• Forest Restrictions: Forest Acts limited access to forests, restricting grazing areas for pastoralists.
• Settlement and Control: The Criminal Tribes Act classified pastoralists as criminals, controlling their movements and confining them to specific areas.
• Taxation: Various taxes, including grazing taxes, were imposed, increasing the financial burden on pastoralists.

These changes led to a decline in their grazing grounds, regulated their movements, and increased their financial pressures, adversely affecting both their pastoral and trading activities.

Q10. Why did the colonial government pass the law Criminal Tribes Act and imposition of Grazing Tax?

Ans: The British colonial government aimed to control nomadic populations for easier governance. They passed the Criminal Tribes Act in 1871 to:

• Classify certain communities as criminal, forcing them to live in fixed areas.
• Monitor their movements through permits.

Additionally, the grazing tax was introduced to:

• Generate revenue from pastoralists by taxing each animal grazed.
• Provide a steady income for the colonial government.

Q11. Give any four reasons to explain why Maasai community lost their grazing land?

Ans: Colonial Boundaries: In 1885, Maasailand was divided between British Kenya and German Tanganyika, which reduced their grazing area.

• White Settlements: Prime grazing lands were taken for white settlements, forcing the Maasai into smaller, less fertile regions.
• Expansion of Cultivation: The British promoted agricultural expansion, converting pasture lands into fields.
• Game Reserves: Significant portions of Maasai grazing land were designated as game reserves, such as Maasai Mara and Serengeti National Park, further limiting their territory.

Q12. Explain any four factors responsible for the annual movement of the Dhangars.

Ans: Four factors responsible for the annual movement of the Dhangars:

• Monsoon Grazing: The central plateau of Maharashtra becomes a rich grazing area during the monsoon.
• Harvesting Bajra: After harvesting bajra in October, they migrate to the Konkan region.
• Fertilizing Fields: In Konkan, their flocks help fertilise the fields post-harvest, and in return, they receive rice.
• Avoiding Wet Conditions: They return to the dry plateau before the monsoon starts, as their sheep cannot tolerate wet conditions.

Q13. Explain any four laws which were introduced by the colonial government in India that changed the lives of pastoralists.

Ans: Wasteland Rules: Introduced in the mid-19th century, these rules allowed the government to take over uncultivated lands, which reduced the available pastures for pastoralists.

• Forest Acts: Also enacted in the mid-19th century, these laws classified forests as ‘reserved’ or ‘protected’. This restricted pastoralists’ access to vital grazing lands and forests.
• Criminal Tribes Act: Passed in 1871, this law labelled many pastoral communities as criminal, which limited their movements and forced them to reside in designated areas.
• Grazing Tax: The colonial government imposed a tax on each animal grazed, significantly increasing the financial burden on pastoralists.

Q1: Mention any five effects of the ‘Great Economic Depression’ on the economy of Germany.

Ans:

• The industrial production was reduced to 40 percent of the 1929 level.
• Workers lost their jobs or were paid reduced wages.
• Unemployed youth took to criminal activities and total despair became commonplace.
• The middle classes, especially salaried employees and pensioners, saw their savings diminish when the currency lost its value.
• Small businessmen, the self-employed and retailers suffered as their businesses got ruined.

Q2: Why was the ‘Treaty of Versailles’ treated as harsh and humiliating to people of Germany? Explain.

Ans:

• Germany lost its overseas colonies, a tenth of its population, 13 percent of its territories, 75 percent of its iron and 26 percent of its coal to France, Poland, Denmark and Lithuania.
• The Allied Powers demilitarised Germany to weaken its power.
• The War Guilt Clause held Germany responsible for the war and the damages the Allied countries suffered.
• Germany was forced to pay compensation amounting to 6 billion.
• The Allied armies also occupied the resource-rich Rhineland for much of the 1920s.

Q3: Describe any three factors that made the Weimar Republic politically fragile.

OR
Describe the problems faced by the Weimar Republic.

Ans:

• Proportional Representation: This system of electing candidates weakened or made it impossible for any party to get a majority. Only coalition governments were possible. On average, a ministry lasted for 249 days.
• Article 48: It gave the President the powers to impose emergency, suspend civil rights and rule by decree. This article was used by Presidents.
• Failure of the Weimar Republic: It failed to get the faith of the people. Democracy was new to the Germans and they found it the cause behind the economic crisis, national humiliation due to war guilt and the Treaty of Versailles. People looked for alternatives that paved the way for the rise of Hitler.

Q4: Explain the circumstances under which Nazism became popular in Germany. [2015, 2016]  

OR 

What is Nazism? How did it become popular in Germany? Explain. [2014]  

Ans: Circumstances under which Nazism became popular were:  

• Hitler was a great orator. His passion and words moved people. 
• He promised to build a strong nation.  
• He promised to restore dignity of the Germans and undo the injustice of the Treaty of Versailles.  
• He promised employment for those looking for work and a secure future for the youth.  
• He promised to weed out all foreign influences and resist all foreign conspiracies against Germany.  
• Hitler devised a new style of politics. Nazis held massive rallies and public meetings as to show the strength and confidence for Hitler.  
• The red banners with the Swastika, ritualised rounds of applause and the Nazi salute after the speeches, were all part of this spectacle of power. 
• Nazi propaganda projected Hitler as a Messiah or a Saviour.  

Q5: ‘Nazi ideology was synonymous with Hitler’s world view.’ Explain. (CBSE 2010)

Ans: 

• ‘Nazi’ ideology was synonymous with Hitler’s world view. 
• It said and meant that there was no equality between people but only a racial hierarchy. 
• According to it, blond, blue-eyed Nordic German Aryans were at the top, while Jews were located at the lowest rung of the ladder. 
• They came to be regarded as anti-race. 
• Darwin was a natural scientist, who tried to explain the creation of plants and animals through the concept of evolution and natural selection. 
• Herbert Spencer later added the idea of the ‘survival of the fittest.’ 
• Their ideas were borrowed by the Nazis – whose argument was, the “strongest race would survive and the weak ones would perish. 
• The Aryan race was the finest. It had to retain its purity, became stronger, and dominate the world.” 
• The other aspect of Hitler’s ideology was the concept of ‘lebensraum’ or living space meaning new territories should be acquired, as it would enhance the area of the mother country.

Q6: Explain any three of the following terms :
(a) Lebensraum
(b) A Racial State
(c) Propaganda
(d) Ghettoisation and concentration camps
(e) Jungvolk

Ans: (a) Lebensraum: It was an aspect of Hitler’s Ideology that is related to the geopolitical concept of living space. He believed that new territories had to be acquired for settlement. This would enhance the area of the mother country while enabling the settlers on new lands to retain an intimate link with the place of their origin.

(b) Racial State: Once in power, the Nazis quickly began to implement their dream of creating an exclusive racial community of pure Germans by physically eliminating all those who were seen as ‘undesirable’ in the extended empire. Nazis only wanted a society of ‘pure and healthy Nordic Aryans’. They alone were considered ‘desirable’.

(c) Propaganda: The Nazi regime used language and media with care and often to great effect. They used films, pictures, radio, posters, etc. to spread hatred for the Jews. Propaganda is a specific type of message directly aimed at influencing the opinion of people through the use of posters, films, speeches, etc.

(d) Ghettoisation and Concentration Camps: From September 1941, all Jews had to wear a yellow Star of David on their breasts. This identity mark was stamped on their passport, all legal documents, and houses. They were kept in Jewish houses in Germany and in ghettos like Lodz and Warsaw in the east. These became sites of extreme misery and poverty. The largest Nazi concentration camp is identified with Auschwitz (Poland). Built in 1940, the camp served as a major element in the perpetration of the holocaust, killing around 16 million people of whom 90 % were Jews. The camp was surrounded by barbed wire. The camp held 100,000 prisoners at one time. The camp’s main purpose was not internment but extermination. For this purpose, the camp was equipped with four gas chambers, and each chamber could hold 2,500 people at one time.

(e) Jungvolk: These were Nazi youth groups for children below 14 years of age. Youth organisations were made responsible for educating German youth in ‘the spirit of National Socialism’. Ten-year-olds had to enter Jungvolk. At 14, all boys had to join the Nazi youth organisation.

Q7: Give reasons why the Weimar Republic failed to solve the problems of Germany.

Ans:
The Weimar Republic Flag

• The birth of the Weimar Republic coincided with the uprising of the Spartacus League on the pattern of the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia. The Democrats, Socialists and Catholics opposed it. They met in Weimar to give shape to a democratic republic. The republic was not received well by its own people largely because of the terms it was forced to accept after Germany’s defeat at the end of the First World War.
• Many Germans held the new Weimar Republic responsible for not only the defeat in the war but the disgrace at Versailles. This republic was finally crippled by being forced to pay compensation. Soon after the economic crisis hit Germany in 1923, the value of the German mark fell considerably.
• The Weimar Republic had to face hyperinflation. Then came the Wall Street exchange crash in 1929. Politically too the Weimar Republic was fragile. The Weimar Constitution had some inherent defects, which made it unstable and vulnerable to dictatorship. One was proportional representation. This made achieving a majority by any one party a near-impossible task, leading to a rule by coalitions. 
• Another defect was Article 48, which gave the president the powers to impose an emergency, suspend civil rights, and rule by decree. Within its short life, the Weimar Republic saw twenty different cabinets lasting on an average of 239 days, and liberal use of Article 48. Yet the crisis could not be managed. People lost confidence in the democratic parliamentary system, which seemed to offer no solutions.

Q8: Why was Nazism considered to be a negation of both democracy and socialism? (CBSE 2010)

Ans:
The Nazi Germany Flag

• After assuming power on 30th January 1933, Hitler set out to dismantle the structure of democratic rule. The Fire decree of 28th February 1933 indefinitely suspended civic rights like freedom of speech, press, and assembly that had been guaranteed by the Weimar constitution. The repression of the Jews and Communists was severe. 
• On 3rd March 1933, the famous Enabling Act was passed. This Act established a dictatorship in Germany. It gave Adolf Hitler all political and administrative power to sideline the German parliament. All political parties of Germany and trade unions were banned except for the Nazi party and its affiliates. 
• The state established complete control over the economy, media, army, and judiciary. Special surveillance and security forces besides the existing regular police force, the Gestapo, the SD plus the extra-constitutional powers of these newly constructed forces gave the Nazi state its reputation of being the most dreaded criminal state.

 Q9: Describe Hitler’s rise to power with reference to his
 (a) Policy towards the youth
 (b) His personal qualities
 (c) Development of the art of propaganda

Ans:

(a) Policy towards youth 

• Hitler was fanatically interested in the youth of the country. He felt that a strong Nazi society could be established only by teaching children the Nazi ideology. This required control over the child, both inside and outside school. Good German children were subjected to a process of Nazi schooling, a prolonged period of ideological training. School textbooks were rewritten. 
• Racial science was introduced to justify the Nazi ideas of race. Children were taught to be loyal and submissive, hate Jews, worship Hitler. Even the function of sports was to nurture a spirit of violence and aggression among children. Hitler believed that boxing could make children iron-hearted, strong, and masculine. 
• Youth organisations were made responsible for educating the German youth in ‘the spirit of National Socialism’. Ten-year-olds had to enter Jungvolk. At 14, all boys had to join the Nazi youth organisation – Hitler youth – where they learned to worship war, glorify aggression and violence, condemn democracy, hate Jews, Communists, Gypsies, and all those termed as ‘undesirables’. After a period of rigorous ideological and physical training, they joined the labour service usually at the age of 18. Then they had to serve in the armed forces and enter one of the Nazi organisations.

(b) His personal qualities 

• Hitler was a tireless worker and an able organiser. He had a charming personality. He was an effective orator. Bitterly anti-Communist, he promised to save the country from the onslaught of communism. He won over the nationalists by promising to vindicate national honour by repudiating the Treaty of Versailles.

(c) Development of the art of propaganda  

• The Nazi regime used language and media with care, and often to great effect. The terms they coined to describe their various practices were not only deceptive, they were chillings. Nazis never used the words ‘‘kill’’ or ‘‘murder’’ in their official communications. Mass killings were termed ‘special treatment’, final solution (for the Jews), euthanasia (for the disabled), selection, and disinfections. ‘Evacuation’ meant deporting people to gas chambers. The gas chambers were labeled as ‘disinfection areas’, and looked like bathrooms equipped with fake shower heads. 
• Media was carefully used to win support for the regime and popularise its worldview. Nazi ideas were spread through usual images, films, radio, posters, catchy slogans, and leaflets. In posters, groups identified as the ‘enemies’ of Germans were stereotyped, mocked, abused, and described as evil.

Q10: Describe in detail Hitler’s treatment of the Jews. (CBSE 2010)OR

Explain Nazi ideologies regarding the Jews. [2010 (T-1)]

Ans:

• Once in power, the Nazis quickly began to implement their dream of creating an exclusive racial community of pure Germans by physically eliminating all those who were seen as ‘‘undesirable’’ in the extended empire were mentally or physically unfit Germans, Gypsies, blacks, Russians, Poles. But Jews remained the worst sufferers in Nazi Germany. They were stereotyped as ‘killers of Christ and usurers’. Until medieval times, Jews were barred from owning land. They survived mainly through trade and moneylending. They lived in separately marked areas called ‘ghettos’. They were often persecuted through periodic organised violence and expulsion from the land. All this had a precursor in the traditional Christian hostility towards Jews for being the killers of Christ. 
• However, Hitler’s hatred of the Jews was based on pseudo-scientific theories of race, which held that conversion was no solution to ‘the Jewish problem’. It could be solved only through their total elimination. From 1933 to 1938, the Nazis terrorised, pauperised, and segregated the Jews, compelling them to leave the country. The next phase of 1939-1945 aimed at concentrating them in certain areas and eventually killing them in gas chambers in Poland. Under the shadow of war, the Nazis proceeded to realise their murderous, racial ideal. Genocide and war became two sides of the same coin.

Q11: “The seeds of the Second World War were sown in the Treaty of Versailles.” Discuss.
OR

What were the effects of the peace treaty on Germany after the First World War? [2010 (T-1)]

Ans:
The Treaty of Versailles

• The defeat of Germany in World War I made Hitler angry. It horrified him. The Treaty of Versailles made him furious. He joined the German Workers Party and renamed it National Socialist German Workers Party. This later came to be known as the Nazi Party. Hitler promised to build a strong nation, undo the injustice of the Versailles Treaty and restore the dignity of the German people. 
• After First World War, Germany was compelled to sign this treaty under the threat of war. So to undo the wrong of the Versailles Treaty, to put Germany on its feet, to bring financial stability, to realise its dreams of creating a nation of pure Germans who belonged to an exclusive racial community of pure, healthy, Nordic German Aryans, and to make Germany into a mighty power, Hitler choose war. In September 1939, Germany invaded Poland. This started a war with France and England. 
• In 1940, a Tripartite Pact was signed between Germany, Italy, and Japan, strengthening Hitler’s claim to international power. Puppet regimes, supportive of Nazi Germany, were installed in a large part of Europe. Hitler then attacked the Soviet Union. But suffered a crushing defeat. After the Pearl Harbour incident, USA entered the war. Thus we see a direct link from the Treaty of Versailles to World War two.

Q12: What was the Nazi ideology of Lebensraum? How did they proceed to actualise it? [2010 (T-1)]

Ans: 

• Lebensraum was the other aspect of Hitler’s ideology related to a geopolitical concept. It meant living space. He believed that new territories had to be acquired for settlement. This would enhance the area of the mother country while enabling the settlers on new lands to retain an intimate link with the place of their origin. It would also enhance the material resources and power of the German nation. 
• Hitler intended to extend German boundaries by moving eastwards to concentrate all Germans geographically in one place. Poland became the laboratory for this experimentation. Hitler wrote (Secret Book, ed. Telford Taylor), ‘‘A vigorous nation will always find ways of adapting its territory to its population size.’’ Thus Hitler turned its attention in conquering Eastern Europe. He wanted to ensure food supplies and Living Space for Germans.

Q13: ‘The Nazi regime used language and media with care and often to great effect.” Explain.

Ans:

• “The Nazi regime used language and media with care and often to great effect. They never used such commonplace revealing terms as ‘‘kill, murder’’ in their official communications. Mass killings were termed special treatment, final solution (for the Jews), euthanasia (for the disabled) selection, and disinfections. ‘Evacuation’ meant deporting people to gas chambers. Gas chambers were called ‘disinfection areas’. They looked like bathrooms equipped with fake showerheads. 
• Media was carefully used to win support for the regime and popularise its worldview. Nazi ideas were spread through visual images, films, radio, posters, catchy slogans and leaflets for the Jews. The most infamous film was ‘The Eternal Jew’. They were shown with flowing beards, wearing Kaftans, whereas in reality, it was difficult to distinguish German Jews by their appearance because they were a highly assimilated community.

Q14: Describe the early life of Hitler prior to his assuming power as the dictator of Nazi Germany. [2010 (T-1)]

Ans:
Adolf Hitler

• Hitler was born in 1889 in Austria. He spent his youth in poverty. When the first World War broke out, he enrolled in the army, acted as a messenger in the front, became a corporal, and earned medals for bravery.
• The German defeat horrified him and the Versailles Treaty made him furious. In 1919, he joined a small group called the German Workers’ Party. He subsequently took over the organisation and renamed it the National Socialist German Workers’ Party. This party was popularly known as the Nazi party.

Q15: ‘The German economy was the worst hit by the economic crisis.’ Discuss.

Ans: 

• The image of German carrying cartloads of currency notes to buy a loaf of bread was widely publicised evoking worldwide sympathy. This crisis came to be known as ‘‘hyperinflation’’, a situation when prices rise phenomenally high. 
• The German economy was the worst hit by the economic crisis. Industrial production was reduced to 40 percent of the 1929 level. 
• Workers lost their jobs or were paid reduced wages. The number of the unemployed touched an unprecedented 6 million. On the streets of Germany, you could see men with placards around their necks saying, ‘‘willing to do any work.” 
• The economic crisis created deep anxieties and fears in people. The middle classes, especially the salaried employees and pensioners saw their savings diminish when the currency lost its value. 
• Small businessmen, the self-employed, and retailers suffered as their businesses got ruined. Only organised workers could manage to keep their heads above water. 
• The big business was in crisis, the peasantry was affected by a sharp fall in agricultural prices.

Q16: Explain how the fragility of the Weimar Republic led to the rise of Hitler.

Ans: 

• The Peace Treaty at Versailles with the Allies was the biggest problem faced by the Weimar Republic. 
• Due to this treaty, Weimar Republic was not received well by its own people, i.e. the Germans, largely because of the harsh terms it was forced to accept after Germany’s defeat in the First World War. At this time started the Nazi movement. 
• It believed in the glorification of the state. It also believed in war, colonialism, militarism, and expansionism. 
• It was opposed to democracy, liberalism, socialism, world peace and internationalism. 
• The unpopularity of the Weimar Republic paved the way for the rise of Nazism and Hitler. 
• Hitler was a tireless worker and an able organiser. He was an effective orator, he promised to save the country. 
• He won the nationalists by promising to vindicate national honour by repudiating the Treaty of Versailles. 
• The middle class was assured economic relief and the disbanded soldiers’ employment. This led to the rise and popularity of Hitler and Nazism in Germany.

Q17: Explain the social utopia of the Nazis.

Ans: 

• According to Hitler and Nazi ideology, there was no equality between people, but only social hierarchy. 
• In this view blond, blue-eyed, Nordic German Aryans were at the top, while Jews were located at the lowest rung. They came to be regarded as an anti-race, the arch enemies of the Aryans. 
• Once in power, the Nazis quickly began to implement their dream of creating an exclusive racial community of pure German by physically eliminating all those who were seen as ‘undesirable’ in the extended empire. 
• Nazis wanted a society of ‘pure and healthy Nordic Aryans’. They alone were considered ‘desirable’. 
• Under the shadow of war, the Nazis proceeded to realise their murderous, racial ideal. 
• Genocide and war became two sides of the same coin. Occupied Poland was divided up. 
• Much of north-western Poland was annexed to Germany. 
• Poles were forced to leave their homes and properties behind to be occupied by ethnic Germans brought in from occupied Europe. Poles were then herded like cattle in the other part called the ‘General Government’, the destination of all ‘undesirables’ of the empire. 
• With some of the largest ghettos and gas chambers, the General Government also served as the killing field for the Jews.

Q18: Why did the USA enter into the Second World War? [2010 (T-1)]

Ans: 

• When the Second World War broke out, the US announced its neutrality. 
• In July 1941, the Japanese had occupied Vietnam in Indo-China. 
• In October, an even more aggressive government came to power in Japan. 
• On 7 December 1941, the Japanese bombers attacked the US naval base at Pearl Harbour in Hawaii. The US had expected a Japanese attack on the British and Dutch colonial possessions in the area and was completely taken by surprise. In the bombing, 188 aircraft and many battleships, cruisers, and other naval vessels of the US were destroyed and over 2000 sailors and soldiers killed. 
• The US was angry at this development. 
• On 8 December, the US declared war on Japan. 
• On 11 December, Germany and Italy declared war on the US and the US declared war on Germany and Italy.

Q1. Explain the main effects of the First World War on the industries in Russia.

Ans: Main Effects of the First World War on Russian Industries

• Russian industries were limited during World War I due to a lack of diversity, and the country faced isolation from other industrial suppliers because of German dominance over the Baltic Sea.
• Industrial equipment deteriorated at a faster rate in Russia compared to other European nations.
• By 1916, the railway infrastructure in Russia started to deteriorate, aggravated by the conscription of able-bodied men into the war effort.
• Due to the labor shortages caused by conscription, several small workshops that produced essential goods were forced to close down.
• A significant amount of grain was redirected to feed the army, leading to shortages of bread and flour in urban areas.
• By the winter of 1916, bread riots became a common occurrence in cities due to the scarcity of essential food items.

Q2. What were the immediate consequences of the Russian Revolution? (CBSE 2010) 
OR 
What were the impacts of the Russian Revolution on Russia?

Ans: The Russian Revolution led to significant changes in Russia:

• End of Monarchy: The revolution marked the end of the autocratic monarchy, transforming the Tsarist empire into the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).
• Socialist Government: One of the significant outcomes of the Bolshevik Revolution was the establishment of a Socialist Government, where all means of production came under state control. This included banks, mines, factories, railways, telephones, and more, all of which were declared as government property.
• Nationalisation: Properties belonging to the Church were nationalised, and work became mandatory for all citizens. Those who did not work were deprived of voting rights.
• Response to War: Before the revolution, the Russian population faced dire conditions exacerbated by World War I. The primary concern for the people was securing food rather than territorial expansion.
• Industrial Growth: After the revolution, the government nationalised both small and large industries, leading to rapid industrialisation.
• Reduction of Poverty: The growth of industrial and agricultural sectors contributed to a decrease in poverty, paving the way for national prosperity.

Q3. Discuss the causes that led to the Revolution of 1917. 
OR 
Describe the circumstances which were responsible for Russian Revolution.

Ans: The circumstances that led to the Russian Revolution included:

• Poor living conditions: The Russian peasantry was in a miserable condition. The farmers could not get even two square meals a day. Their land holdings were very small and they had to pay heavy taxes.
• Worker exploitation: The Russian as well as the foreign capitalist industrialists exploited the workers by taking 12-14 hours of work and paying very low wages to them. The workers had no right to form trade unions or seek reforms. They led a miserable life.
• Autocratic rule: Tsar Nicholas II was a despotic ruler with absolute power. He enjoyed unlimited powers and rights. The people of the higher strata enjoyed great privileges. The bureaucracy was corrupt and inefficient. The common people who suffered most, were fed up with the absolute rule of the Tsar and wanted to get rid of him.
• Desire for change: The widespread discontent among the populace, particularly the suffering common people, led to a strong desire to overthrow the Tsar.
• Influence of Marxism: Karl Marx propagated ‘Scientific Socialism’. He strongly opposed capitalism which meant untold exploitation of the common men.

Q4. Discuss Stalin’s collectivisation programme. 
OR 
What was Collectivisation? How did Stalin use this programme?

Ans: Stalin’s collectivisation programme aimed to address grain shortages in Soviet Russia by consolidating small farms into large collective farms known as kolkhoz.

• Beginning in 1929, the government forced peasants to join collective farms.
• Land and farming tools were transferred to these collective farms, with profits shared among the peasants.
• Many peasants resisted, leading to a significant decline in livestock; the number of cattle dropped by one-third between 1929 and 1931.
• Those who opposed collectivisation faced severe punishment, including exile and deportation.
• Peasants argued they were not wealthy and supported socialism, but opposed collectivisation for various reasons.
• Some independent farming was allowed, but these farmers received little support from the government.
• Despite these efforts, agricultural production did not improve immediately, and poor harvests from 1930 to 1933 resulted in a devastating famine, causing over 4 million deaths.

Collectivization in Russia

Q5. Explain how a society, according to socialists, can operate without property. What would be the basis of socialist society?

Ans: Socialists believe that a society can function without private property by focusing on collective ownership and cooperation. Here are key ideas:

• Cooperatives: Robert Owen, an influential English manufacturer, envisioned the establishment of a cooperative community known as New Harmony in Indiana, USA.
• Government Support: Some socialists, like Louis Blanc in France, argued that the government should promote cooperatives to replace capitalist businesses.
• Collective Production: Cooperatives are formed by individuals working together, sharing profits based on their contributions.
• Marx’s Perspective: Karl Marx highlighted that in a capitalist society, factory owners profit from workers’ labour. He believed that workers must overthrow capitalism and establish a society where all property is collectively owned, leading to a communist society.
• Second International: In the 1870s, socialists united to coordinate their efforts through the Second International, advocating for workers’ rights and better living conditions.

In summary, socialists envision a society where property is owned collectively, ensuring that the focus is on the welfare of all rather than individual profit.

Q6. How did socialism spread in Europe?

Ans: Socialism spread in Europe through a mix of influential thinkers, practical experiments, and political activism:

• Intellectual Advocacy: By the mid-19th century, socialism emerged as a significant ideology. Socialists critiqued private property as a cause of social inequality, advocating for societal control of property to benefit the collective. Key figures like Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels promoted revolutionary change to establish a communist society.
• Cooperative Experiments: Socialists explored models for a society without private property. For instance, Robert Owen founded a cooperative community in New Harmony, Indiana. Others, like Louis Blanc, called for government-backed cooperatives to replace capitalist enterprises, aiming to share profits based on individual contributions.
• Political Mobilization: By the 1870s, socialist ideas gained momentum, leading to the formation of the Second International to unify socialist efforts across Europe. Workers’ associations in England and Germany campaigned for better conditions, reduced hours, and voting rights.
• Formation of Political Parties: Socialists established political parties to promote their goals. In Germany, they supported the Social Democratic Party (SPD), while in Britain, they helped create the Labour Party, and in France, the Socialist Party emerged.
• Legislative Influence: Although socialists did not form governments in Europe before 1914, their ideas influenced legislation and public discourse. Conservative, liberal, and radical parties continued to dominate, but socialist principles shaped many political debates.

Q7. Discuss the role and importance of Lenin in the history of the USSR. 
OR 
Examine the role of Lenin in the Russian Revolution.

Vladimir Lenin

Ans: 

• In April 1917, the Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin returned to Russia from exile. He said it was time for the Soviets to take overpower. 
• He declared that the war is brought to a close, the land is transferred to peasants, banks are nationalized. These three demands were Lenin’s ‘April Theses’. 
• He argued that Bolshevik Party is renamed the Communist Party. In January 1918, Lenin dismissed the Constituent Assembly. 
• There was only one party — the All Russian Congress of Soviets. It also became the Parliament of the country. The secret police OGPU and NKVD punished those who criticised the Bolsheviks. 
• By 1920, the Bolsheviks controlled most of the former empire. 
• The Bolsheviks created the USSR from the Russian Empire in December 1922.

Q8. What were the social, economic, and political conditions in Russia before 1905?

Ans: Social Conditions

• Russia had a diverse population, including various social statuses, classes, religions, and nationalities.
• The Russian language was imposed, undermining local cultures.
• Main groups included farmers, workers, landowners, capitalists, industrialists, and traders.

Economic Conditions

• Approximately 85% of Russians were engaged in agriculture.
• Agriculture was the primary source of employment, supplying food for both the market and personal needs.

Political Conditions

• Nobles gained power through their loyalty to the Tsar, rather than local support.
• Unlike in France, where peasants respected nobles, Russian peasants sought to take land from the nobles.
• Many peasants refused to pay rent and some resorted to violence against landlords.

Q9. In what ways was the working population in Russia different from other countries in Europe, before 1917?

Ans: Before 1917, the working population in Russia was notably different from that in other European countries due to several factors:

• Social Divisions: Workers were a divided group, with some maintaining strong ties to their villages, while others settled permanently in cities.
• Skill Disparity: Workers were categorised by skill level. For example, metalworkers viewed themselves as the elite among workers due to their specialised training.
• Strikes: Despite their divisions, workers often united to strike against employers over issues like dismissals and working conditions, particularly in the textile and metal industries.
• Peasant Relations: Peasants, like workers, were also divided but had little respect for the nobility. They sought to claim noble lands, often refusing to pay rent and sometimes resorting to violence against landlords.
• Land Ownership: Unlike many European countries, Russian peasants periodically pooled their land in communes (mir) and redistributed it based on family needs.

These characteristics contributed to a unique social landscape in pre-revolutionary Russia.

Q10. What were the main changes brought about by the Bolsheviks immediately after the October Revolution?

Ans: Main Changes After the October Revolution:

• Nationalisation: Most industries and banks were taken over by the government, meaning they became state-owned and managed.
• Land Reforms: Land was declared social property, allowing peasants to seize land from the nobility.
• Housing Regulations: In cities, large houses were divided according to family needs.
• Abolition of Titles: The use of old aristocratic titles was prohibited.
• Uniforms: New uniforms were created for the army and officials, including the iconic Soviet hat.
• Party Renaming: The Bolshevik Party was renamed the Russian Communist Party.
• One-Party State: Russia became a one-party state, with the Bolsheviks as the sole political party.
• Secret Police: The OGPU and NKVD were established to punish critics of the Bolsheviks.

Q11. Comment on the global influence of the Russian Revolution. 
OR 
What were the international consequences of the Russian Revolution?

Ans: Global influence of the Russian Revolution are as follows:

• Existing socialist parties in Europe did not wholly approve of the way the Bolsheviks took power and kept it.  
• Still, the possibility of a workers’ state fired their imagination across the world. In many countries, communist parties were formed.  
• Bolsheviks encouraged colonial people to follow their example. Many non-Russians received education in the USSR’s communist University of the Peoples of the East.  
• By the time the Second World War broke out, the USSR had given socialism a global face and world stature.

Q12. How did Russia’s participation in the World War cause the fall of the Tsar?

Ans: The war initially garnered support for Tsar Nicholas II, but as it dragged on, his popularity waned. Key factors contributing to the Tsar’s downfall included:

• Anti-German sentiments grew, especially against the Tsarina Alexandra, who had German roots.
• The influence of poor advisers, notably the monk Rasputin, further discredited the autocracy.
• Military defeats were shocking and demoralising, with Russia suffering over 7 million casualties by 1917.
• Destruction caused by retreating armies led to over 3 million refugees and widespread discontent.

The war severely impacted industry:

• Many factories producing essential goods shut down due to labour shortages.
• Large quantities of grain were diverted to feed the army, causing bread shortages in cities.
• By winter 1916, riots over food became common.

As the situation deteriorated, public support for the Tsar diminished, leading to the collapse of his regime.

Q13. What were the immediate consequences of the Russian Revolution?

Ans: The immediate consequences of the Russian Revolution included significant upheaval within the military and society:

• The Russian army began to break apart as the Bolsheviks ordered land redistribution.
• Many soldiers, primarily peasants, deserted to return home for land.
• Opposition arose from Bolshevik Socialists, Liberals, and supporters of autocracy, who organised troops to combat the Bolsheviks.
• During 1918 and 1919, the ‘greens’ (Socialist Revolutionaries) and ‘whites’ (pro-Tsarists) controlled much of the Russian Empire.
• These groups received support from foreign troops, including those from France, America, Britain, and Japan, concerned about the rise of socialism.
• A civil war ensued, leading to widespread looting, banditry, and famine.
• Supporters of private property among the ‘whites’ took harsh actions against peasants who had seized land, resulting in a loss of popular support.
• By January 1920, the Bolsheviks had gained control over most of the former Russian Empire.

Q14. What was Bloody Sunday? 
Or 
Describe the incident known as ‘Bloody Sunday’? State any two events after the Bloody Sunday which led to the revolution of 1905 in Russia.

Ans: 

• On Sunday, 22nd January, 1905, workers led by Father Gapon in Russia marched to the winter palace of the Tsar to present a petition.
• Tragically, they were met with indiscriminate firing by the police and cossacks, resulting in the deaths of over 100 workers and injuries to 300 more.
• This event marked the beginning of what would be known as the 1905 Revolution, with this tragic incident being referred to as ‘Bloody Sunday’ in Russian history.

Consequences of Bloody Sunday:

• The news of Bloody Sunday sparked widespread unrest across Russia, leading to strikes occurring nationwide.
• Universities in Russia were shut down as students protested the government’s suppression of civil liberties.
• Professionals such as lawyers, doctors, engineers, and middle-class workers formed the Union of Unions, demanding a constituent assembly.

Q15. Describe the main events of the October Revolution in Russia.

Ans: On 16 October 1917, Lenin persuaded the Petrograd Soviet and the Bolshevik Party to support a socialist seizure of power. A Military Revolutionary Committee was formed, led by Leon Trotskii, to organise the uprising, which was kept secret.

The uprising began on 24 October. Prime Minister Kerenskii had left the city to gather troops. At dawn, government loyalists seized two Bolshevik newspapers. Pro-government forces attempted to take over telephone and telegraph offices and protect the Winter Palace.

In response, the Military Revolutionary Committee instructed its supporters to:

• Seize government offices
• Arrest ministers

Later that day, the ship Aurora shelled the Winter Palace, and other vessels captured military points. By nightfall, the city was under the committee’s control, and the ministers surrendered. The All Russian Congress of Soviets in Petrograd endorsed the Bolshevik actions.

Uprisings also occurred in other cities, with significant fighting in Moscow. By December, the Bolsheviks had established control over the Moscow-Petrograd area.

Q.26. Describe any three causes for the fall of the Jacobin government in France.
Ans. The causes for all of the Jacobin government were:

(i) Many persons who were seen as ‘enemies’ of the republic, i.e., those who did not agree with the strict measures taken by Robespierre, were executed.
(ii) A maximum ceiling was fixed on wages and prices. Rationing of essential food items was introduced, causing hardships to the people.
(iii) Churches were shut down and converted into barracks or offices, causing resentment in the clergy.

Maximilien RobespierreQ.27. Describe the divisions in French society before the French Revolution.

Or

Describe the French division of society.
Ans. The French society was divided into three estates:
(i) First Estate comprised of the Church and the clergy. They enjoyed certain privileges by birth. They were exempted from paying taxes to the state.
(ii) Second Estate: They were big aristocrats and landlords. They were considered above the law and exempted from paying taxes.
(iii) Third Estate: This comprised the peasants, artisans, city workers and the middle class people like teachers, doctors, lawyers, writers, etc. All such people had no political rights. They had to pay many kinds of taxes.

Q.28. How did peasants protest against the feudal lords or nobles of France?
Ans. (i) In the countryside, there were rumors that the landlords of the manor had hired criminals to destroy the ripe crops of the peasants.
(ii) Being afraid of the situation, peasants in several districts seized hoes and pitchforks and attacked chateaux (castles belonging to the noblemen). They looted the hoarded grain.
(iii) They also burnt down documents containing records of the manorial dues. As a result, a larger number of nobles fled from their hometowns and migrated to neighboring countries.Nobles in FranceQ.29. How did France become a Constitutional monarchy?
Ans. In 1791, the National Assembly completed the draft of the Constitution. Its main object was to limit the powers of the monarch. The powers, instead of being concentrated in the hands of the monarch, were now separated and divided between the Legislature, the Executive, and the Judiciary. The Constitution also declared that it was the duty of the state to protect each citizen’s natural rights. In this way, France became a Constitutional monarchy.

Q.30. Differentiate between active and passive citizens of France.
Ans. In France, only men above 25 years of age who paid taxes equal to at least 3 days of a laborer’s wage were given the status of active citizens. They were entitled to vote. The remaining men, as well as women who were not entitled to vote, were called passive citizens. At that time, to qualify as an elector and a member of the assembly, a man had to belong to the highest bracket of taxpayers.

Q.31. What was the condition of women in France before the revolution? Or Evaluate the role of women in France before the revolution.
Ans. 
(i) The role of women in France before the revolution was that all women were classed as passive citizens. They did not have voting powers.
(ii) They worked as seamstresses or laundresses, sold flowers, fruits, and vegetables, or worked as domestic servants.
(iii) Their wages were lower than those of men.
(iv) They looked after their children, cooked, fetched water, and queued for bread.
(v) Most women did not have access to education or job training. Only daughters of wealthy parents could study at a convent, after which they were married off.

Q.32. Which laws were made to improve the status of women in French society? 

Or

Discuss any four steps taken by the revolutionary government of France to improve the lives of women.

Or

State any five laws introduced by the revolutionary government in France that helped to improve the lives of women.
Ans. In the beginning, the revolutionary government introduced some laws to improve the status of women in society. These were
(i) Schooling was made compulsory for all girls.
(ii) Their fathers could no longer force them into marriage against their will. If they did so, they were punished.
(iii) Marriage was made into a contract entered into freely, and it was registered under civil law.
(iv) Divorce was made legal and could be applied for by both men and women.
(v) Women could train for jobs, become artists, or run small businesses.

Q.33. What was the guillotine? How was it used?
Ans. The guillotine was a device consisting of two poles and a blade with which a person was beheaded. It was used by Robespierre, who followed a policy of ‘Reign of Terror’, i.e., of severe control and punishment. Those who did not agree with his methods were arrested, imprisoned, and then tried by a revolutionary tribunal. If the court found them ‘guilty’, they were guillotined.

Q.34. Compare the manifesto drafted by Olympe de Gouges with the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.

Or

Name one of the most important of the politically active women in revolutionary France. What do you know about her?
Ans. While the manifesto drafted by Olympe de Gouges talked primarily about women and equality, the Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen talked only about men. The manifesto sought to give political, social, and economic equality to all citizens, including men and women. On the other hand, the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen denied privileges to women. They were sidelined as passive citizens.

Olympe de Gouges

Q.35. Explain any five features of the Constitution of 1791, framed by the National Assembly in France.

Or

Write three main features of the French Constitution of 1791.
Ans. The National Assembly completed the draft of the Constitution in 1791.
(i) It declared France as a Constitutional monarchy.
(ii) The powers of the king were separated and assigned to different institutions – the Legislature, the Executive, and the Judiciary.
(iii) The National Assembly was given the power to make laws.
(iv) To qualify as an elector or member of the assembly, a man had to belong to the highest bracket of taxpayers.
(v) Only men above 25 years of age who paid taxes equal to at least 3 days of a laborer’s wage were given the status of the active citizen, i.e., voters.

Q.36. The 18th century France witnessed the emergence of the middle class. Who were they, and what were their ideas?
Ans. In the 18th century, the middle class was a social group that earned their wealth through expanding overseas trade and from the manufacture of goods such as woolen and silk textiles. In addition to merchants and manufacturers, it also included lawyers and administrative officials.
They were well educated and believed that:
(i) No group in society should be privileged by birth.
(ii) A person’s social position must depend on his merit.
(iii) A society must be based on freedom and equal laws and opportunities for all.
(iv) Locke, Rousseau, and Montesquieu maintained this idea.

Q.37. What was the important law that came into effect soon after the storming of the Bastille in the summer of 1789? How did it change the lives of the common people? Explain.
Ans. After the fall of the Bastille in the summer of 1789, one important law that came into effect was the abolition of censorship. Before the French Revolution, all written material and cultural activities? books, newspapers, and plays could be published or performed only after they had been approved by the censors of the king.

This law changed the lives of the common people in the following ways:
(i) The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen proclaimed freedom of speech and expression to be a natural right.
(ii) Newspapers, pamphlets, books and printed pictures flooded the towns of France from where they could rapidly reach the countryside.
(iii) These all discussed events and changes that took place in France.
(iv) Freedom of the press meant that opposing views of events could be expressed.
(v) Plays, songs, and festive processions attracted common men through which they could identify the ideas of liberty or justice of the political philosophers.

Storming of the BastilleQ.38. Explain the triangular slave trade carried on during the 18th and 19th centuries.
Ans. 
The triangular slave trade flourished in the 18th century and 19th century as:
(i) There was a shortage of labour in the colonies in the Caribbean due to Europeans’ reluctance to go and work in distant, unfamiliar places.
(ii) This problem was solved by a triangular slave trade between Europe, Africa and America. The slave trade began in the 17th century.
(iii) French merchants sailed from the ports of Bordeaux or Nantes to the African coast, where they bought slaves from local chieftains.
(iv) The slaves were brought to the Caribbean and were sold to plantation owners.
(v) The exploitation of slave labor made it possible to meet the growing demand in European markets for sugar, coffee, and indigo.

Q.39. Write a short note on Napoleon Bonaparte.
Ans. 
In 1804, Napoleon Bonaparte crowned himself as the Emperor of France:
(i) In the administrative field, he incorporated many revolutionary principles which made the whole system more rational and efficient.
(ii) His Civil Code of 1804 (known as the Napoleonic code) did away with all privileges based on birth, established equality before the law, and secured the right to private property.
(iii) He introduced a uniform system of weights and measures provided by the decimal system.
(iv) Initially, many believed Napoleon was a liberator who would bring freedom to the people.
(v) Many of his reforms were exported to the regions under French control. These left a long-lasting effect on society.

Napoleon Bonaparte

Q.40. What do you understand by the term ‘Reign of Terror’?
Ans. The period from 1793 to 1794 is referred to as the ‘Reign of Terror’ because, during this time, Robespierre followed a policy of severe control and punishment. All those whom he regarded as being ‘enemies’ of the republic, e.g., nobles, clergy, or members of his or other political parties, were arrested and tried by a revolutionary tribunal. If found guilty, they were guillotined. More than 15000 persons were guillotined during this period. The ‘Reign of Terror’ became intolerable, and people were against Robespierre and his followers. Finally, Robespierre was convicted and guillotined in July 1794, and the Reign of Terror ended with his death.

Q.41. (i) Which groups of French society benefited from the revolution? 
(ii) Which groups were forced to relinquish power? 
(iii) Which sections of society would have been disappointed with the outcome of the revolution?
Ans. 
(i) All the groups that formed the third estate benefited from the revolution. These groups included workers, businessmen, merchants, court officials, lawyers, teachers, and doctors, etc.
(ii) The classes that formed the privileged sections of society, like the nobility, clergy, and aristocracy, were forced to relinquish their executive powers.
(iii) Naturally, the privileged classes, viz, the clergy and the nobles, would have been disappointed with the outcome of the revolution because their privileges were taken away from them.

Q.42. Draw up a list of democratic rights we enjoy today whose origins could be traced to the French Revolution.

Or

Mention any five values that are associated with the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen.
Ans. Some of the democratic rights that we enjoy today, whose origins could be traced to the French Revolution, are given in the Indian Constitution.
(i) Right to Equality: The right to equality originated during the French Revolution. In the Indian Constitution, the right to equality means equality before the law, prohibition of discrimination, and equality of opportunity in matters of employment.
(ii) Right to Liberty or Freedom: The origin of this right can also be traced to the French. In the Preamble to the Indian Constitution, the Right to Liberty or freedom means ‘freedom of thought, expression, belief, faith and worship.’
(iii) Encouraging the Spirit of Fraternity: The French Revolution introduced the growth of the spirit of fraternity and social welfare. In the Indian Constitution the concept of ‘fraternity’ abolishes untouchability, local or provincial anti-social feelings.
(iv) Inspiring the Spirit of Democracy: The French Revolution inspired the spirit of democracy, which ensured many rights, viz., the right against exploitation, the right to life, the right to vote, etc, which we are enjoying today.
(v) Liberty: It consists of the power to do whatever is not hampering the interests of others. The Constitution declared that these rights belonged to each human.

Q.43. What is the role of philosophers in the French Revolution?
Ans. 
The revolutionary ideas of philosophers encouraged people to fight for their rights:
(i) Voltaire believed that man’s destiny was in his own hands.
(ii) John Locke criticized the divine and absolute rights of rulers.
(iii) Rousseau put forward the idea of the formation of a government based on a social contract between people and their representatives. Men had the right to change their government if they were not satisfied with it.
(iv) Montesquieu believed that all powers should not be concentrated in one person’s hand. They should be divided between the Legislature, the Executive, and the Judiciary. The ideas of these philosophers were discussed by common people in salons and coffeehouses and inspired them to fight for their rights.

Q.44. How was slavery abolished in France? 

Or

Explain the process of slavery abolition in France.
Ans. One of the most revolutionary social reforms of the Jacobin regime was the abolition of slavery. An acute shortage of labor in the French Caribbean colonies, Martinique, Guadeloupe, and San Domingo, led to a triangular slave trade between Europe, Africa, and America in the 17th century. The National Assembly held long debates, and finally. The Convention in 1794 passed laws freeing slaves in the French overseas possessions, but it lasted for a short time. After ten years, slavery was reintroduced by Napoleon. Finally, it was abolished in 1848.

Q.45. The French Revolution popularised many symbols. Each symbol depicted some basic values. Mention such symbols and related values.
Ans. 

• The Broken Chain was used to fetter slaves. A broken chain symbolized freedom from slavery.
• The Bundle of Rods or Fasces: One rod can be easily broken, but not an entire bundle. It symbolizes strength lies in unity.
• The Eye within a Triangle Radiating Light: The all-seeing eye stands for knowledge. The rays of the Sun will drive away from the clouds of ignorance. It depicts knowledge and removes ignorance.
• Scepter: It was a symbol of royal power. It depicted the power of autocracy.
• Snake Biting its tail to form a Ring: This type of ring has neither beginning nor end. It is a symbol of eternity.
• Red Phrygian Cap: It was worn by a slave upon becoming free. It symbolizes freedom from bondage or slavery.
• Blue-White Red: These were the national colors of France. The use of these colors depicted nationalism.

Q.46. In ‘The Spirit of the Laws’, Montesquieu proposed a division of power within the government between the Legislative, the Executive and the Judiciary. Explain the values which can be reflected in this proposal.
Ans. The values which can be derived from Montesquieu’s proposal are:
(i) Power Sharing Montesquieu suggested a division of power within the government between the Legislative, the Executive and the Judiciary. This arrangement refuted the absolute right of the king.
(ii) Equality There would be no special privileges for the first and second estates, i.e., the clergy and nobility. Everybody in the country should enjoy equal status.
(iii) Expansion of People’s Power Montesquieu opposed the theory of the ‘Divine Right of the King’. His concept of separation of powers is a prerequisite to eliminating corruption from the administration. 

Q.47. What was the impact of the French Revolution on the world? Give your points. 

Or 

What was the impact of the French Revolution on the world? Name two Indians who were very much influenced by revolutionary France. 

Or 

Describe the legacy of the French Revolution for the people of the world.
Ans. Ideologically, the impact of the French Revolution on the world was immense:
(i) The ideas of liberty and democratic rights were the most important legacy of the French Revolution. These ideas spread from France to the rest of Europe during the 19th century, when feudal systems were abolished.
(ii) Colonised people in Africa, Asia, and Latin America reworked the idea of freedom from bondage into their movements to create a sovereign nation-state.
(iii) The French Revolution led to the end of monarchy in France. A society based on privileges gave way to a new system of governance.
(iv) The idea that all individuals had rights and could claim equality became part of the new language of politics, but in different countries, they were reinterpreted and rethought. Tipu Sultan and Raja Rammohan Roy are two Indians who were very much influenced by the revolution in France.

Q.48. What were the causes of the empty treasure of France under Louis XVI? Assess any three causes. 

Or 

State any five causes for the empty treasury of France under Louis XVI. (v) Lenders who had given the state credit now began to charge 10 percent interest on the existing loans. So, the French government had to spend an increasing percentage of its budget on interest payments.
Ans. In 1774, Louis XVI of the Bourbon family of kings ascended the throne of France. He found an empty treasury.
The causes for it were:
(i) Long years of wars had drained the financial resources of France. The condition was served when, under Louis XVI, France helped the thirteen American colonies gain their independence from Britain.
(ii) The king’s court at the immense Palace of Versailles was extravagant. A huge amount of money was required for its maintenance.
(iii) Taxes were levied only on the third estate and exempted the first and second estates, which were rich.
(iv) The war with Britain added more than a billion livres to a debt that had already risen to more than 2 billion livres.
(v) Lenders who had given the state credit have now begun to change 10 percent of the interest on the existing loans. So, the French government had to spend an increasing percentage of its budget on interest payments.

Q.49. Why did the subsistence crisis frequently occur in France during the Old Regime? 

Or 

List any five reasons that led to the subsistence crisis in France during the Old Regime.
Ans. A subsistence crisis means an extreme situation where the basic means of livelihood are endangered. During the Old Regime, a subsistence crisis frequently occurred in France.
The reasons that led to the subsistence crisis are:
(i) The population of France rose from about 23 million in 1715 to 28 million in 1789, which led to a rapid increase in the demand for food grains.
(ii) Production of grains could not keep pace with the increasing demand. So, the price of the foodstuff, which is made from grains, rose rapidly.
(iii) Most workers were employed as laborers on fixed wages. Their wages could not keep pace with the rise in prices.
(iv) The gap between the poor and the rich widened. Poor remain poor, but the rich become richer.
(v) The crisis of food grains became worse whenever drought or hail reduced the harvest.

Q.50. What were the results of the French Revolution for France? 

Or 

What landmark decisions were taken by the National Assembly led by the third estate on the 4th of August, 1789?
Ans. In June 1789, the representatives of the third estate declared themselves a National Assembly. They drafted a constitution for France.
(i) They discarded the power of absolute monarchy. Even Louis XVI accepted the fact that his powers would be checked by a Constitution.
(ii) On 4th August 1789, the assembly passed a decree abolishing the feudal system of obligations and taxes.
(iii) Members of the clergy were forced to give up their privileges.
(iv) Tithe was abolished, and lands owned by the Church were also confiscated.
(v) As a direct consequence of these measures taken by the government, the government acquired assets worth at least 2 billion lives.

Q1. Describe the circumstances leading to the outbreak of revolutionary protest in France.

Ans: The outbreak of revolutionary protest in France resulted from a mix of social, political, economic, and intellectual factors:

• Social Causes: French society was divided into three estates. The First Estate (clergy) and Second Estate (nobility) enjoyed privileges and did not pay taxes. In contrast, the Third Estate, which included peasants, workers, and the middle class (bourgeoisie), faced heavy taxation and lacked political rights, leading to widespread resentment.
• Political Causes: King Louis XVI was an ineffective ruler. He and his wife, Marie Antoinette, lived in luxury while ignoring the people’s needs. The corrupt and inefficient government fueled demands for change in leadership.
• Economic Causes: France’s economy suffered due to prolonged wars (like the American War of Independence), extravagant royal spending, and a flawed tax system that burdened the Third Estate. The government faced bankruptcy, and rising food prices caused widespread suffering.
• Intellectual Causes: Enlightenment thinkers such as Rousseau, Voltaire, and Montesquieu promoted ideas about liberty, equality, and democracy. These concepts inspired the populace to question the existing social and political systems. 
  
  French Revolution

Q2. Describe the legacy of the French Revolution for the people of the world during the 19th and 20th centuries.
Ans: The French Revolution had a profound and lasting impact on the world, particularly during the 19th and 20th centuries. Its revolutionary ideas sparked numerous movements and changes globally.

• Liberty: The Revolution highlighted the importance of liberty, as seen in the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen. This laid the groundwork for a new social order, encouraging individual freedom and national sovereignty. It inspired people worldwide to fight for their rights.
• Equality: The principle of equality challenged societies built on privilege. The notion that “all individuals have the same rights” became a rallying cry for political movements, motivating people to demand equal treatment under the law.
• Fraternity: This concept promoted unity and cooperation among different societal groups. It encouraged individuals to work together for the common good, regardless of their backgrounds.
• Nationalism: A significant legacy was the rise of nationalism. The Revolution inspired nations like Poland, Germany, and Italy to pursue independence and form nation-states, reshaping Europe’s political landscape and influencing movements in South America.
• Other Ideas: The Revolution also introduced concepts such as the abolition of serfdom and the push for equal rights for women. These ideas spread globally and influenced future social movements.

Q3. What is the significance of ‘The Tennis Court Oath’ in the French Revolution?
Ans: The Tennis Court Oath was a crucial moment in the French Revolution, symbolising the growing power of the Third Estate. On 20 June 1789, representatives of the Third Estate, who believed they represented the French people, convened in an indoor tennis court at Versailles. They proclaimed themselves the National Assembly and pledged not to disband until they had created a constitution to limit the king’s powers. Key points include:

• Leaders like Mirabeau and Abbé Sieyès were instrumental in this movement.
• While drafting the constitution, unrest spread across France.
• The storming of the Bastille and peasant revolts reflected the demand for change.

Tennis Court Oath

Q4. Explain why the artist has portrayed the nobleman as the spider and the peasant as the fly.
Ans: The artist used the imagery of a spider and a fly to represent the relationship between nobles and peasants in 18th-century France:

• The spider symbolises the nobleman, who traps and exploits the hardworking fly, representing the peasant.
• Nobles profited from the labour of peasants, who were burdened with feudal dues and various obligations.
• This portrayal highlights the exploitative social structure of the time, where the rich benefited at the expense of the poor.

Q5. Which groups of French society would have gained from the Constitution of 1791? Which groups would have had reason to be dissatisfied? What developments does Marat (Source B) anticipate in the future?
Ans: The Constitution of 1791 primarily benefited the wealthier members of the Third Estate, granting them political power and rights previously reserved for the nobility and clergy. Conversely, the following groups were dissatisfied:

• First Estate (clergy): Lost their privileges and had to pay taxes.
• Second Estate (nobility): Also lost their privileges and faced taxation.

Marat anticipated further unrest, predicting that the poor would rise against the wealthy bourgeoisie, similar to how they had previously overthrown the nobles and clergy. He expected a new wave of rebellion led by the underprivileged against the rich.

Q6. Imagine the impact of the events in France on neighboring countries such as Prussia, Austria-Hungary or Spain, all of which were absolute monarchies. How would the kings, traders, peasants, nobles or members of the clergy here have reacted to the news of what was happening in France?
Ans: The kings, nobles, and clergy in neighbouring countries such as Prussia, Austria-Hungary, and Spain would have reacted with alarm to the events in France. They feared that the revolutionary ideas of:

• Liberty
• Equality
• Fraternity

might inspire similar uprisings in their own realms, threatening their absolute power. In contrast, the peasants and the less privileged in these countries would likely have welcomed the news. They would see the French Revolution as a beacon of hope for:

• Change in their lives
• Relief from oppressive systems

The revolutionary events also created new opportunities for women, allowing them to:

• Train as artists
• Exhibit their work

A notable example from this period is a female allegory of liberty, symbolising freedom through the image of a woman.

Q7. Describe the picture in your own words. What are the images that the artist has used to communicate the following ideas: greed, equality, justice, and takeover by the state of the assets of the Church?

Ans: Greed is represented by the fat clergyman on the left. The two men beside him depict government officials who have seized the Church’s assets. In the centre, the fat-reducing press symbolizes justice. The figures on the right, a man and a woman, represent equality. Overall, the image illustrates the ideals of the revolution.

Patriotic fat-reducing

Q8. How did the French people ultimately get the right to vote for all citizens?
Ans: In the summer of 1792, the Jacobin leaders organised a revolt with many angry Parisians, frustrated by food shortages and high prices. Key events included:

• On August 10, they stormed the Tuileries Palace.
• The king’s guards were killed, and King Louis XVI was taken hostage.
• The Assembly voted to imprison the royal family.

Following these events:

• Elections were held.
• All men aged 21 and above, regardless of wealth, were granted the right to vote.

The newly elected assembly was called the Convention, which abolished the monarchy on 21 September 1792 and declared France a republic. This meant that the people could elect their government, including the head of state, rather than having a hereditary monarchy.

Q9. How did peasants protest against the feudal lords or nobles of France?
Ans: Peasants protested against the feudal lords in France through various actions driven by fear and anger:

• Rumours circulated that landlords had hired brigands to destroy ripe crops.
• In response, peasants armed themselves with hoes and pitchforks.
• They attacked châteaux (noble castles), looting grain and burning documents that listed their dues.
• Many nobles fled their estates, seeking safety in neighbouring countries.

This unrest contributed to significant changes in the feudal system, as the National Assembly later abolished feudal obligations and privileges.

Q10. Differentiate between Active and Passive Citizens.
Ans: Active Citizens:

• Men over 25 years old.
• Paid taxes equal to at least three days’ wages of a labourer.
• Had the right to vote.

Passive Citizens:

• Included all other men and women.
• Did not have the right to vote.

Q11. What rights were provided by the French Constitution?
Ans: The Constitution began with the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen, which established several fundamental rights:

• Natural and inalienable rights: Rights that belong to every human being by birth and cannot be taken away.
• Right to life: Every individual has the right to live.
• Freedom of speech: Citizens can express their opinions freely.
• Equality before the law: All individuals are treated equally under the law.

The state has a duty to protect these rights for every citizen. Key principles from the Declaration include:

• All men are born free and equal in rights.
• The purpose of political associations is to preserve natural rights, including liberty and property.
• Sovereignty resides in the nation; authority comes from the people.
• Liberty allows individuals to act as long as it does not harm others.
• Law is the expression of the general will, and all citizens have the right to participate in its formation.
• No one can be arrested without legal justification.
• Citizens can speak, write, and print freely, but must take responsibility for any misuse.
• Property is a sacred right; it cannot be taken without just compensation.

Q12. What do you know about the political clubs formed in France?

Ans: During the French Revolution, many believed that the revolution needed to go further, as the Constitution of 1791 mainly benefited the wealthy. This led to the rise of political clubs, which served as vital spaces for discussing government policies and planning actions.

• The most influential club was the Jacobin Club, named after a former convent in Paris.
• Members of the Jacobin Club were mainly from less prosperous backgrounds, including small shopkeepers and artisans.
• Women also formed their own clubs, with around sixty established across France, advocating for their right to vote.
• The Society of Revolutionary and Republican Women was the most notable among them.

These clubs played a crucial role in voicing the demands for equal political rights, as many women felt sidelined by the Constitution.

Jacobian Club

Q13. What was a ‘Directory’? Why was it removed from France?
Ans: After the fall of the Jacobin government, a new constitution was established in France. This constitution:

• Denied voting rights to non-propertied men.
• Created two elected legislative councils.
• Appointed a Directory, which was an executive body of five members.

However, the Directory faced several challenges:

• Frequent clashes with the legislative councils.
• Political instability due to these conflicts.

This instability ultimately facilitated the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte and his military dictatorship.

Q14. How did women suffer in France?
Ans: In France, many women faced significant hardships:

• Most women had to work to support themselves, often as laundresses, seamstresses, or selling flowers, fruits, and vegetables.
• They were frequently employed as domestic servants in wealthier households.
• Access to education or job training was limited, with only noble daughters receiving formal schooling.
• Women were responsible for household duties, including cooking, fetching water, queuing for bread, and caring for children.
• They earned much lower wages than men for similar work.

To voice their concerns, women formed political clubs and newspapers, leading to the establishment of around sixty women’s clubs across various cities. However, during the Reign of Terror, the government banned these clubs and many women faced arrest and execution. Despite these challenges, the fight for equal political rights persisted, culminating in women gaining the right to vote in 1946.

Q15. Which laws were made to improve the status of women in French society?
Ans: During the French Revolution, several laws were enacted to enhance the status of women:

• Compulsory education: Schooling became mandatory for all girls.
• Marriage rights: Fathers could no longer force daughters into marriage against their will.
• Divorce: Divorce was legalised, allowing both men and women to file for it.
• Employment opportunities: Women gained access to job training, could work as artists, or run small businesses.

Q16. What was the immediate cause of the French Revolution?
Ans: A harsh winter led to poor harvests, causing a significant rise in the price of bread, which was the staple food for most people. Bakers often hoarded bread, worsening the situation. Frustrated by long waits for bread, crowds of angry women stormed into bakeries. Meanwhile, King Louis XVI ordered troops into Paris. On 14 July 1789, a large crowd stormed the Bastille prison, marking the beginning of the French Revolution.

Q17. What was Guillotine? How was it used?

Ans: The guillotine was a device designed for execution, featuring two vertical poles and a sharp blade used for beheading. It was named after its inventor, Dr. Guillotine. During the French Revolution, it became a symbol of harsh punishment under Robespierre’s regime. Key points about its use include:

• Opponents of Robespierre’s policies were arrested and tried.
• If found guilty, they faced execution by guillotine.
• This method was seen as a means of enforcing control and eliminating dissent.

Guillotine used during French Revolution

Q18. How did the fall of Bastille prison become the immediate cause of the French Revolution?
Ans: On the morning of 14 July 1789, Paris was in turmoil. Rumours spread that the king would order his troops to fire on citizens. In response:

• About 7,000 men and women gathered at the town hall.
• They formed a people’s militia and searched for arms.
• A group marched to the Bastille, a prison symbolising the king’s power.
• They stormed the Bastille, resulting in the death of its commander and the release of prisoners.

This event became a powerful symbol of the people’s uprising against the king’s tyranny and marked the beginning of the French Revolution.

Q19. How can you say that Louis XVI was a despotic ruler?
Ans: Louis XVI, king of France from 1774, is often considered a despotic ruler due to his poor governance and financial mismanagement. Key points include:

• Inherited an empty treasury after years of costly wars.
• Supported the American War of Independence, worsening France’s debt.
• Chose not to tax the wealthy nobility and clergy, instead burdening the common people with taxes.
• His extravagant lifestyle and unfair policies led to widespread dissatisfaction among the populace.

Q20. What does subsistence crisis mean? What led to the subsistence crisis in France?
Ans: A subsistence crisis occurs when people cannot afford basic necessities, such as food. In France, the population grew from 23 million in 1715 to 28 million in 1789, leading to a surge in demand for food.

• Food production could not keep up with this demand.
• The price of bread, a staple food, rose sharply.
• Workers’ wages did not increase at the same rate as prices, widening the gap between the rich and poor.
• Bad weather, such as droughts or hailstorms, often resulted in poor harvests.

These factors contributed to frequent subsistence crises during the Old Regime.

Q21. Who represented the National Assembly on 5th May 1789?
Ans: On 5 May 1789, King Louis XVI convened the Estates General at Versailles to discuss new taxes. The assembly included:

• The First Estate (clergy) and Second Estate (nobility) each sent 300 representatives.
• The Third Estate, representing common people, sent 600 representatives, but they were positioned at the back.
• Members of the Third Estate were mainly educated and wealthy, while peasants, artisans, and women were excluded.

Despite their exclusion, the Third Estate brought 40,000 letters detailing grievances. They demanded that voting be conducted by individual members rather than by estate, a proposal rejected by the king. In protest, they left the assembly. On 20 June, they declared themselves a National Assembly, vowing to draft a constitution that would limit the monarch’s powers.

Q22. What was Marseillaise? What led to the formation of Marseillaise?
Ans: The Marseillaise is a patriotic song composed by the poet Roget de L’Isle. It emerged during a time of significant turmoil in France:

• Despite King Louis XVI signing the constitution, he secretly negotiated with the King of Prussia to halt the revolution.
• Nearby rulers were also planning to send troops to suppress the revolutionary activities.
• To protect the revolution, the National Assembly declared war on Austria and Prussia in April 1792.
• Thousands of volunteers from the provinces joined the army, viewing it as a fight for the people against monarchies across Europe.
• As they marched into Paris, they sang the Marseillaise, which was first performed by volunteers from Marseille.

Today, the Marseillaise is recognised as the national anthem of France.

Q23. Why do you think that a growing middle class in France envisages an end to the privileges?
Ans: In the past, peasants and workers revolted against high taxes and food shortages. However, they lacked the means to create lasting change. The emergence of a new middle class in the 18th century changed this dynamic. This group included:

• Merchants
• Manufacturers
• Lawyers
• Administrators

They gained wealth through trade and the production of goods, such as textiles. Educated and influential, they believed:

• No one should be privileged by birth.
• Social status should be based on merit.
• Everyone deserves equal laws and opportunities.

Philosophers like John Locke and Jean Jacques Rousseau supported these ideas, advocating for a society built on freedom and equality.

Q24. What do you know about the triangular slave trade? What legislative measures were taken to end slavery in the French colonies?
Ans: The triangular slave trade involved three regions: Europe, Africa, and the Americas. Key points include:

• Europeans transported slaves from Africa to work on plantations in the Americas.
• These plantations produced goods like sugar, coffee, and indigo for European markets.

Regarding legislative measures in France:

• Initially, there was little opposition to slavery.
• The National Assembly debated extending human rights to colonial subjects but feared backlash from businessmen benefiting from the trade.
• In 1794, the Convention passed a law to abolish slavery in French colonies.
• This law was reversed by Napoleon in 1804.
• Finally, slavery was fully abolished in 1848.

Q25. What kinds of freedoms were granted to the citizens of France after the French Revolution?
Ans: Freedoms granted to citizens of France after the French Revolution included:

• Abolition of censorship: The fall of the Bastille led to the end of censorship. Previously, all publications required royal approval.
• Freedom of speech: The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen established this as a natural right.
• Flourishing press: Newspapers, pamphlets, and books spread revolutionary ideas across France, encouraging public debate.
• Natural rights: Rights such as life, freedom of speech, and equality before the law were recognised as inalienable.