Below mentioned is the use of Indefinite Adjectives along with formulas and examples-
Some The indefinite adjective ‘Some’ is generally used in affirmative sentences with uncountable and plural countable nouns. Examples: There is some proof that he is guilty.
It can also be used in questions where ‘Yes’ is expected as an answer. Examples: Would you like some tea?
Any It is used in questions when you want to ask whether something exists or not. It is also used in negative sentences where we want to say that something does not exist. Examples: I don’t need any help.
It is also used in affirmative sentences before plural nouns and uncountable nouns when it refers to a quantity of something which may or may not exist. Examples: You can stop at any point you like.
Little and Much These are used to refer to amount or quantity. Little is used to emphasize that there is a small amount of something, whereas ‘Much’ is used to emphasize large quantities. Both of them are used with uncountable nouns. Little is also used in reference to a small amount of something without any emphasis. Examples: I want to spend a little time in Dubai.
Few and Many These are mostly used to refer to a number. They are used before plural countable nouns. Few emphasize a smaller number, and many refer to more numbers. Example: A few students came to the class today.
More, Less and Fewer They are mostly used as comparative determiners. ‘More’ is used before plural and uncountable nouns (with than) to refer to a quantity or amount which is greater than another quantity or amount. It is also used to refer to an additional quantity of something. Less is used to refer to an amount that is less than another amount. Fewer is used where we refer to a group of things that are smaller than another group before plural nouns. Example: He does much more cardio than I do.
Others
There are many other determiners that are used in the English language and can not be put under any fixed category. So we have put them all one by one and then given their rules for using them in sentences along with examples.
All All is mostly used with a plural verb when followed by a countable plural noun. It includes all the persons or things of a particular kind. Another rule for it is that it requires a singular verb when it is followed by an uncountable noun. Example: All children cannot be treated in the same manner.
Both This determiner is mostly used to talk about two things of the same kind. It is used to show that two persons or things are involved rather than one and is often followed by ‘and’. Example: Both Raman and Raghav went out for a movie.
Either and Neither These determiners usually refer to two persons or things but show that one out of the two is or is not involved in a situation. Neither is used mostly with singular nouns, and by either, it can mean both of two things, especially when it is used with ‘end’ or ’side’. Example: Take either side of the bed, both are the same.
Each and Every These determiners are used to refer to all members of a group, persons or things. When we talk about members as individuals, we use ‘each’, and when we make a statement about all of them, we use ‘every’. They are to be prefixed before a singular countable noun, and the verb attached to them should be singular. Example: Each and every board member was present in the meeting.
One This determiner is used when we are talking or writing about a group, and we want to say something about a particular member of the group. It is used in place of ‘a’ or ‘an’, and it explains things more clearly. Example: I know one restaurant where you can get amazing Chinese food.
Another It can be used with a singular countable noun to talk about an additional person or thing of the same type. Example: Can I have another cup of coffee?
Other This determiner is used with plural nouns or sometimes with uncountable nouns. Example: Other people might not have thought like this.
Enough The determiner ‘enough’ is used before uncountable nouns or plural nouns to say that there is something that is sufficient and enough as much as needed. Example: The hotel had enough rooms for all the guests.
Most ‘Most’ is used to indicate nearly all of an amount or of a group. Example: Most of the people do not recover from this fatal disease.
Several It is usually used to indicate an imprecise number that is not very large but more than two. Example: There were several deaths during the floods in the U.P.
Exercise
Fill in the blanks with suitable determiners:
1) ________ house is not mine.
2) I have ________ more files to complete.
3) She doesn’t like him ________.
4) Nidhi answered ________ the questions wrong.
5) ________ the girls had to carry their own luggage.
6) I shall not buy ________ oranges. These are rotten.
7) I have bought ________ cycle.
8) I drive 10 Kms ________ day to reach my school.
9) We are expecting ________ guests tonight.
10) ________ of my answers were correct. So I passed.
Definition: Determiners are those words that are prefixed before nouns to determine their meaning. They can be divided into the following types:
1) Articles: a, an, the
2) Demonstratives: this, that, these, those
3) Possessives: my, your, our, his, her, its, their
4) Indefinite Adjectives: some, any, much, many, little, few, less
5) Others: all, each, every, both, neither, either, other, another, enough, most, several, one, two, etc.
Let us discuss each of them one by one –
Articles
The two indefinite articles in the English language are ‘a’ and ‘an’. The definite article in the English language is ‘the’. For indefinite articles, you can use either of them depending on the sound of the first letter of the next word. This is done for pronunciation reasons.
Use of ‘a’ takes place in the following instances:
In places where the following word starts with a consonant sound, the determiner ‘a’ is used.
Also, ‘a’ is used where the following word is a singular countable noun.
The determiner ‘an’ also does the same work as ‘a’ but is used in the following instances:
Places where the following word is a singular countable noun and starts with a vowel sound (a, e, i, o, u).
‘The’ is mostly used before both singular and plural nouns. Its main function is to specify a person, place, or thing.
Uses of Articles with Rules and Examples:
‘a’ and ‘an’ (Indefinite Determiners) are used before the following-
A singular countable noun which is being mentioned for the first time. The rule can be understood with the help of the following example sentences – 1. I have never seen a gun. 2. I saw a sports bike at the store today.
A singular countable noun or adjective begins with a consonant sound. The rule can be understood with the help of the following example sentences – 1. I ate a banana. 2. I saw a tall girl today.
A singular, countable noun which is an example of a class of things. The rule can be understood with the help of the following example sentences – 1. A pet needs love. (Class of things is pets. 2. A father deserves to be respected by his children.
The noun to express a quantity. The rule can be understood with the help of the following example sentences – 1. I need a dozen bananas. 2. I need to buy a couple of books.
The units of price, speed, ratio, weight etc. The rule can be understood with the help of the following example sentences – 1. This bike gives 35 kilometres a litre. 2. You can run a mile in just 5 minutes.
Certain numbers or monetary units. The rule can be understood with the help of the following example sentences – 1. I want to earn a billion dollars by the age of 40. 2. Can you lend me a hundred rupees?
The expression of frequency. The rule can be understood with the help of the following example sentences – 1. Put these ear drops twice a day. 2. Wash your face three times a day in the summer.
Certain exclamatory expressions. The rule can be understood with the help of the following example sentences – 1. What a beautiful morning! 2. What a cute dog!
Here are a few Important rules to remember about the use of indefinite determiners:
The spelling of the word following the determiner is not important. Only the sound is important. A few words given below start with vowel letters but do not have vowel sounds. So, the determiner ‘a’ is attached to them. For example: A union, A one rupee coin, etc
There are a few words that start with consonant letters but have vowel sounds. They are preceded by the determiner ‘an’. For example: An honest man, An honour.
Indefinite determiners are mostly prefixed before nouns that do not refer to any particular person, place, or thing. For example: A cat, a boy, an hour
Indefinite determiners can be used before uncountable nouns if the noun is used in a particular sense. For example, I always have tea after my lunch. She is a great pianist.
An indefinite determiner can be attached before the adjective if the adjective is followed by a countable noun. For example: It is a red colored T-shirt.
‘The’ (Definite Determiners) is used before the following-
A singular noun when it refers to a particular class or group. Example: The luxury car is a rich man’s vehicle.
Names of rivers, ranges of mountains, gulfs, seas, oceans, groups, islands, ships, etc.
Countries with plural names. Examples: The Philippines
Books of religion (Religious books). Examples: The Shreemad Bhagavad Gita
Names of hotels, museums, and certain building names. Examples: The Oberoi Group of Hotels
Last names of families in the plural. Examples: The Madans
Names of newspapers and magazines. Examples: The Top Gear
Superlatives of adjectives. Examples: The best boy in the class.
Descriptive adjectives refer to a whole group or class. Examples: The working class.
The names of races and communities. Examples: The Hindu
Few expressions of the English language. Examples: All the colleagues.
Demonstratives
The demonstrative determiners in the English language are this, that, these, and those. The demonstrative determiner ‘That’ (Plural- Those) is used to avoid repetition of a preceding noun. Examples: My shorts are better than those of my brother.
The demonstrative determiner ‘This (Plural- These)’ is used to refer to a person/ persons or thing/ things near to the speaker. Examples: This is the best coffee I have had.
The demonstrative determiner ‘That (Plural- Those)’ refers to a person/ persons or thing/ things far from the speaker. Examples: Get that dog out of the house.
Possessives:
The possessive determiners in the English language are my, your, our, his, her, its, their. These are used to show or determine the ownership of a certain thing.
A and an are used before countable Singular Nouns. A is used before a word beginning with a consonant sound, while an is used before with a vowel sound ; as, A pen is to write with. An elephant is a huge animal. Our hen laid an egg today. The is a weakened form of that : The is used to particularise a person or a thing ; as, Bring me the book lying on the table. The dish you prepared was very delicious.
2. This, That, These, Those
This, that, these and those point to objects denoted by the Nouns that follow them ; as,
This man is a raw villager. That horse runs very fast. These mangoes are very sweet. Those girls must be rewarded.
This and these point to the objects which are near, while that and those point to the distant objects.
3. My, Our, Your, His, Her, Its, Their, One’s
These are Possesive forms of Pronouns. They can be used before Singular and PluralNouns ; as,
My father was a famous physician. Our school shows brilliant results every year. Your sister is absent today. Her books lie scattered in the room. Their houses are newly built. One must do one’s duty.
4. One, Two, Three… etc.
He is blind in one eye. She has two daughters. Only three boys are sitting in the room.
5. Each and Every
Each is used for two or more persons (definite) while every is used for more than two persons or things (indefinite) ; as, Each boy must have his own book. Every man is expected to do his best.
6. No, Any and Some
No and Any are used in Negative and Interrogative sentences, while Some is generally used in Affirmative sentences ; as,
There is no high school in this village. He didn’t buy any thing from the market.
Some is used in Affirmative sentences while any is used in Negative sentences. Each of them can, however, be used in Interrogative sentences ; as,
Some We never use some in Negative sentences. (i) In affirmative sentences: Please lend me some money.
(ii) In a question which shows some request or invitation : Will you have some milk? Will you show me some pens?
Study the use of some in Negative Interrogation sentences. Didn’t I give you some money yesterday? Won’t you give me some more books?
Any We can use any with countable or uncountable Nouns both in the Singular and Plural numbers.
(i) In negative sentences: I haven’t any spare pen. She did’t send me any reply.
(ii) In interrogative sentences: Is there any news? Didn’t you lend him any money?
(iii) After ‘hardly’, ‘scarcely’ and ‘barely’ : There is hardly any milk in the milk pot. She had scarcely any body to fall back upon. I had gone hundred yards barely, any one could give me the news.
(iv) After ‘if’ when there is some doubt : If you have any difficulty in solving the questions, come to me. If there is any danger, blow the whistle.
7. (a) All and Both
All denotes the total of many units together, while Both shows the total of two units together. He gave me all the mangoes. Both Vijay and Vinay are adept in painting.
7. (b) All and Whole
The is used after all but before whole. All the boys played traunt. The whole class was out.
All is used with both countable and uncountable nouns. All my books have been lost. All her milk was sold in no time.
8. Either and Neither
Either means one of the two persons or things. Neither is the opposite of Either.
I can speak on either (neither) side. You may buy either of these two pens. Neither of them could speak on the stage.
9. (a) Many, Much, Few, A Few, Less and Several
Many denotes number, while Much denotes quantity. Few is the opposite of ‘Many’ and Less is the opposite of Much, Several means Many.
There are many flowers in this garden. There is much sugar in stock. We have few holidays in school. A few students came to attend the lecture. You devoted less time to your studies. Several people paid homage to the independent leader.
9. (b) Study the use of many, many a, much, few, a few, the few, little, a little, and the little.
(i) Many, many a, much : Many is followed by a plural number while many a by a singular number ; as, Many students were absent yesterday. Many a man has died of cholera.
Much denotes quantity while many denotes number. I have much work to do.
(ii) Few, a few, the few : Few means not many, hardly any ; a few means some ; the few means not many but all of them ; as, I have few friends. He is a man of few words. I shall return this book in a few days. I have read the few books I had. (shows number).
(iii) Little, a little, the little : Little means not much, hardly any ; a little means some ; the little means not much but all of that much ; as, There is little milk in the jug. (hardly any) A little knowledge is a dangerous thing. I spent the little money I had.
‘Determiner’ is a word used before a noun to indicate which things or people we are talking about. The words ‘a’, ‘the’, ‘my’, ‘this’, ‘some’, ‘many’, etc., are called determiners.
The boy you met is my friend.
This novel is very interesting.
I have some information about the accident.
There were many people at the station.
All the Bold words are determiners and they further limit or modify the meaning of the nouns that follow them.
Kinds of Determiners
Pre-determiners
Pre-determiners are the words that occur before a determiner to limit the meaning of a noun:
All the boys joined the race.
He drank half of the milk.
You will get all the information.
She stayed there all of the time.
Both the boys were present.
He gets twice the pay that I get.
He has a ratherpleasant personality.
What a mess you have made!
I paid double the sum for this bed.
It was quite a shock.
He has such a beautiful wife.
Articles
The article system in English consists of the definite article ‘the’ and the indefinite article ‘a’ or ‘an’. We can think of nouns in a specific or general way. When we refer to particular people or things or something that has already been mentioned or can be understood, we use the definite article ‘the.’ When we refer to singular nouns for the first time or refer to things generally, we use the indefinite article ‘a’ or ‘an’.
The Definite Article ‘The’:
We can use the definite article before any common noun:
He threw the ball into the river.
The boys were not in the class.
We use the definite article to refer to specific persons or things:
I want to meet the principal of the school.
The tourists crossed the river in a boat.
The definite article is used to refer to the things that are only one in the world:
The moon and stars were shining in the sky.
The sun sets in the west.
The Earth revolves round the sun.
We use the definite article with the words such as school, university, prison when we are referring to a particular building:
They will visit the school on Monday.
I met him at the university.
The definite article may be used with the countable nouns that are used in the singular to refer to things more general:
If you break the law, you will be punished.
He played the violin for half an hour.
The definite article is used to refer to the parts of the body:
Smoking is harmful to the lungs.
He caught him by the neck.
There was an injury in the right eye.
The definite article is used with time expressions:
I met her in the evening.
She came here in the morning.
We use the definite article before something that has already been mentioned:
I met a man at the station.
The man belonged to Tamil Nadu.
The definite article is used before a noun that is followed by a relative clause or a prepositional phrase:
The man I met at the station belonged to Haryana.
He put the sweater on the table.
The definite article is used to refer to familiar things we use regularly:
She looked at the ceiling.
Suddenly the lights went out.
The definite article is used before dates or periods:
We met on the 15th of October.
It is a popular music of the 1940s.
The definite article is generally used before a noun which is followed by ‘of’:
This led to the destruction of the whole village.
The burning of houses rendered people homeless.
The definite article is used before the names of seas, rivers, deserts, mountains,
The ship crossed the Pacific Ocean.
Delhi stands on the banks of the Yamuna.
The Sahara is a famous desert.
They came across the Himalayas.
The definite article is used before the names of large public buildings:
They visited the Taj Mahal.
They went to the Town Hall.
The definite article is used before the superlative adjectives:
He is the best boy in the class.
She is the most beautiful girl in the school.
The definite article is used before adjectives such as rich, poor, deaf, dumb, and blind, to use them as nouns:
The rich and the poor went to the fair.
We should help the blind.
We use the definite article before the nationals of a country or continent:
The Indians are very religious.
Some of the Europeans live here.
We use the definite article before the names of trains and ships:
The Rajdhani Express is a very fast train.
The Queen Elizabeth is a famous ship.
The Indefinite Articles-‘a’, ‘an’:
The indefinite articles (‘a’, ‘an’) are used when we talk about people in a general or indefinite way. The article ‘a’ is used before the words begin with consonant sounds, and ‘an’ is used before the words begin with vowel sounds. However,
Some words start with a vowel letter but begin with a consonant sound. So we use the article ‘a’ before these words:
He is a European.
Theirs is a one parent family.
This is a unique idea.
He is teaching at a university.
We use ‘an’ before words that begin with a vowel sound:
The girl bought an orange.
He is an Indian.
He had an umbrella in his hand.
Some words begin with a silent consonant, So we use ‘an’ before them:
He is an honest man.
He is an heir to the throne.
I met him an hour ago.
We use ‘a’ or ‘an’ before singular countable nouns:
Kolkata is a big city.
The dog is an animal.
We use ‘a’ or ‘an’ before the names of occupations and professions:
His father is an engineer.
He is a pilot.
When we use ‘a’ before ‘little’ and few’, there is a change in the meaning of these words. ‘A few’ is used with plural countable nouns, and ‘a little’ with uncountable nouns. ‘Few’ means not many, while ‘a few’ means a small number. ‘Little’ means not much, while ‘a little’ means some:
Few people visit this temple now.
I know a few students of this school.
There is little water in the bucket.
There is a little milk in the bottle.
We use ‘a’, ‘an’ before an adjective in a noun phrase:
She is a good girl.
She told me an interesting story.
We use ‘an’ with abbreviations beginning with the following letters: A, F, H, I, L, M, N, O, R, S, and X (They should have vowel sounds).
For example: His father is an M.P. He is an N.R.I. She got an X-Ray done.
We use the indefinite article before certain nouns considered as a single unit:
She bought a knife and fork.
The old lady had a cup and saucer in her hand.
Demonstratives
This, These, That, Those
The demonstrative determiners are used to talk about persons or things already mentioned.
This and These refer to the things that are near and can be seen. ‘That’ and ‘Those’ refer to the things that are at a distance but can be seen.
We lived in this house for four years.
She bought these books.
Those boys are very mischievous.
I like this school.
I met her this week.
‘This’ and ‘that’ are used for singular nouns and ‘‘these’’ and ‘those’ for plural nouns.
Can you lift that box?
Would you like to buy those books?
These boys have done their work.
I have already met that man.
Possessives
My, our, your, his, her, its, their
The possessives are used to show possession.
He is my uncle.
Our neighbour is a rich man.
Your daughter is beautiful.
What is her age?
What is his name?
Do you know its value?
Their house is very big.
Try yourself:
Which of the following determiners is used to refer to specific persons or things?
A.This
B.A
C.The
D.Those
View Solution
Ordinals
First, second, next, last, etc.
The ordinals show what position something has in a series.
He is the first boy who has joined this school.
I shall meet him next week.
He is the last man to help you.
Cardinals
One, two, three, hundred, etc.
Cardinals are ordinary numbers like one, two, three, etc. They show how many of something there are:
There were only ten boys in the class.
She lived for eighty years.
He has two daughters.
I met three young men at the station.
He balanced himself on one foot.
Quantifiers
Much, some, several, a lot of, both, all, etc.
Quantifiers refer to the quantity of things or the amount of something.
There were some people at the airport.
Plenty of people would like to have your job.
They didn’t make much progress.
There is no milk in the bottle.
There is enough powder in the can.
I have forgotten some of the details.
They had enough guests already.
All children enjoyed the show.
There was little water in the jug.
It has not made any difference to me. He drank a lot of water.
Distributives
Each, every, either, neither
Distributive determiners refer to each single member of a group.
Each is used when we talk about the members of a group individually and every when we make a general statement. A singular countable noun follows both:
He met each guest.
The minister visited every flood-affected area.
I agree with every word he says.
Each request will be considered.
Either is used to talk about two things but usually indicates that only one of the two is involved. Either of the two girls should come here.
Neither is the negative of Neither member came to attend the meeting.
Either can also mean People stood on either side (both sides) of the road. Neither is followed by a singular noun.
Neither boy said anything. Neither answer is correct.
Interrogatives
What, which, whose, etc.
The interrogative determiners are used for asking questions:
What subjects are you studying?
Which color do you like the most?
Whose house is this?
Try yourself:
Which determiner is used to talk about two things but usually indicates that only one of the two is involved?
The rule for the use of Modal ‘Might’ is that it is used to express less possibility, permission or a guess.
Example of Modal Might are given below: 1) It might rain today. (Less possibility) 2) Might I go to get the files? (Permission) 3) That might be the new guard. (Guess)
⇨ Uses of Modal ‘Can’:
The rule for the use of Modal ‘Can’ is that it is used to express permission, possibility, ability or capacity.
Examples of Modal ‘Can’ are given below: 1) Can I go to the market? (Permission) 2) Anyone can be the thief. (Possibility) 3) He can stay awake for 2 days. (Ability/ Capacity)
⇨ Uses of Modal ‘Could’:
The rule for the use of Modal ‘Could’ is that it is used to express ability or capacity in the past, polite request or a possibility under certain circumstances.
Examples of Modal ‘Could’ are given below: 1) He could run very fast in his youth. (Ability/ Capacity in the past) 2) Could you wait for him? (Polite request) 3) If we had money, we could have bought a house. (Possibility under certain conditions)
⇨ Uses of Modal ‘Must’:
The rule for use of Modal ‘Must’ is that it is used to express obligation/ duty, necessity, compulsion, prohibition, emphatic advice, determination, assumption, conclusion/ interference, certainty/ strong probability.
Examples of Modal ‘Must’ are given below: 1) The children must obey their parents. (Duty) 2) We must not steal money from anyone. ( Duty) 3) You must follow the orders of your boss. (Obligation) 4) I must reach work on time. (Necessity) 5) He must do as I say. (Compulsion) 6) You must not smoke in public places. (Prohibition) 7) You must see a dentist at once. (Emphatic advice) 8) We must not go before they come back. (Determination) 9) The students must be in their classes at this time. (Strong Probability) 10) He must be 40 years old. (Assumption) 11) He must have left by now. (Certainty)
⇨ Uses of Modal ‘Have to’:
The rule for the use of Modal ‘Have to’ is that it is used in the sense of must, to give advice or to recommend something.
Examples of Modal ‘Have to’ are given below: 1) I have to reach there by 9:30 pm. (in the sense of Must) 2) You have to start working soon. (Advice)
⇨ Uses of Modal ‘Need’:
The main rule for the use of Modal ‘Need’ is that it chiefly shows the absence of necessity or compulsion in the negative and interrogative sentences.
Examples of the Modal Need are given below: 1) You need not worry about work. 2) Need I talk to her.
⇨ Uses of Modal ‘Ought’:
The rule for the use of Modal ‘Will’ is that it is used to express the subjects obligation or duty and also it is used to give advice.
Examples of Modal ‘Ought’ are given below: 1) I ought to love my parents. (Obligation/ Duty) 2) We ought not to cheat anyone. (Duty) 3) You ought to practise for more than 2 hours a day if you want to clear the exam.
⇨ Uses of Modal ‘Dare’:
The rule for using the Modal ‘Dare’ is that it is used at places where we need to show courage. It is generally used in negative and interrogative way.
Examples of Modal Dare are given below: 1) I dare not fail in my exams. (Negative) 2) How dare you interrupt us? (Interrogative)
⇨ Uses of Modal ‘Used to’
The rule for the usage of Modal ‘Used to’ is that it is used to express past habits and to express the existence of something in the past.
Examples of the Modal ‘Used to’ are given below: 1) I used to go swimming every morning. (Past Habits) 2) There used to be a door at this place long ago.(Existence of something in the past)
Exercise
Fill in the blanks with correct modals.
1) He knew that he _______ (Would/ must) be able to reach office in time. 2) You ______ (dare/ could) not enter my house again. 3) I thought he ______ (should/ would) be at school. 4) Raman _____ (can/ should) speak in two voices. 5) I _____ (can’t/ couldn’t) write what you spoke. 6) You _____ (should/ can) have told me earlier. 7) _____ (Can/ Should) i get something to drink, please? I am very thirsty. 8) _______ (Can/ Should) I use your car, please? 9) You ______ (can/ would) go in now and meet the doctor. 10) I _______ (would/ should) love to teach these children. 11) I ______ (could/ can) eat 5 bananas at a time when i was young. 12) You _____ (must/ will) see the lawyer at once. 13) ______ (May/ Might) god protect you from the pain and agony. 14) My mother ______ (can/ could) watch T.V for hours even now. 15) It _______ (would/ may) be cold in the evening, who knows?
Answers:
1) Would 2) Dare 3) Would
4) Can
5) Couldn’t
6) Should 7) Can 8) Can 9) Can 10) Would 11) Could 12) Must 13) May 14) Can 15) May
Definition: Modals are special verbs that are different from normal verbs. They are never used alone and are always followed by a principal verb. They provide additional information about the principal verb. They are used to express certainty, possibility, willingness, obligation, necessity and ability.
The List of the Modals with their Positive and Negative forms is given below:
Positive
Negative
Will
Will Not/ Won’t
Would
Would Not/ Wouldn’t
Shall
Shall Not/ Shan’t
Should
Should Not/ Shouldn’t
May
May Not/ Mayn’t
Might
Might Not/ Mightn’t
Can
Can Not/ Can’t
Could
Could Not/ Couldn’t
Must
Must Not/ Mustn’t
Have To
Don’t Have To
Need
Need Not/ Needn’t
Ought
Ought Not To/ Oughtn’t To
Dare
Dare Not/ Daren’t
Used To
Used Not To/ Didn’t Use to
⇨ Uses of Modal ‘Will’:
The first rule for the use of Modal ‘will’ is that it expresses pure future with second and third person as subjects.
The second rule for use of Modal ‘will’ is that it shows willingness, intention, promise, determination with the first person as a subject.
The third and last use of Modal ‘will’ is that it tells about the characteristic, habit, assumption, invitation or request and insistence.
Examples of Modal ‘Will’ are given below: 1) You will die of a heart attack. (Pure Future) 2) The prime minister will hoist the flag. (Pure Future) 3) I will meet you again. (Promise) 4) I will need your help. (Willingness/ intention) 5) He will achieve his goals. (Determination) 6) A child will usually obey his parents. (Characteristic habit) 7) He will be here at any moment. (Assumption) 8) Will you go with me. (Request) 9) He will not listen to his teacher’s advice. (Insistence)
⇨ Uses of Modal ‘Would’:
The rule for the use of Modal ‘would’ is that it expresses past habits, polite request, wish/ preference or an imaginary condition.
Examples of Modal ‘Would’ are given below: 1) He would wake up early in the morning and go to work. (Past habits) 2) My mother would always make me my favourite dishes. (Past habits) 3) Would you get me a glass of water, please? (Polite request) 4) I would like to see the owner. (Polite request) 5) I wish you would be here. (Wish) 6) I would rather have food at home than outside. (Preference) 7) I would buy a house if I won the lottery. (Preference)
⇨ Uses of Modal ‘Shall’:
The first rule for the use of Modal ‘Shall’ is that it expresses pure future with the first person as the subject.
The second rule for the use of Modal ‘Shall’ is that it is used to ask for advice, suggestions, requests, etc. with the first person in the interrogative.
The third rule for the use of Modal ‘Shall’ is that it is used to express command, threat, warning, promise, assurance, determination, etc. with the second and third person as the subjects.
Examples of Modal ‘Shall’ are given below: 1) We shall go to school tomorrow. (Pure Future) 2) I shall teach you to dance. (Pure Future) 3) Shall I bring a glass of fresh juice for you? (Request) 4) Shall I close the door? (Advice) 5) Shall we go to the market tomorrow? (Suggestion) 6) You shall get a reward for your achievement. (Promise/ Assurance) 7) You shall go to your room. (Command) 8) They shall win the match. (Determination)
⇨ Uses of Modal ‘Should’:
The first rule for the use of Modal ‘Should’ is that it is used to express duty, obligation, advisability or desirability.
The second rule for the use of Modal ‘Should’ is that it is used to express logical interference, supposition, assumption, possibility or probability.
The third rule for the use of Modal ‘Should’ is that it is used to express a purpose after ‘lest’.
Examples of Modal ‘Should’ are given below: 1) We should go to school every day. (Duty) 2) You should not be late for work. (Obligation/ Desirability) 3) You should exercise more often. (advisability) 4) He should be at the office by now. (Possibility) 5) If he should see me there, he will be happy. (Probable Condition) 6) Leave on time, lest you should miss the train. (should after lest)
⇨ Uses of Modal ‘May’:
The rule for the use of Modal ‘May’ is that it is used to express possibility, permission, wish, faith, hope or a purpose.
Examples of Modal ‘May’ are given below: 1) It may snow in the evening. (Possibility) 2) May I go now, sir? (Permission) 3) May God always be with you. (Wish, faith or hope) 4) He is working hard so that he may get an appraisal. (Purpose)
Modal auxiliaries are verbs such as can, must, could, would, etc. which are used with main verbs to express such ideas as possibility, permission, necessity, obligation, etc.
Characteristics of Modal Verbs
The modal verbs have several characteristics. They are –
They are auxiliary (helping) verbs.
They are always used with the base form of a main verb (without “to”), except for ought to.
They do not change form according to subject number or tense (no “s” in third person singular).
They do not take infinitive, present participle, or past participle forms (e.g., not used as “to must”, “musting”, “musted”).
They do not form questions or negatives using do/does/did (except need in certain contexts).
They express meanings like obligation, possibility, necessity, deduction, advice, etc.
Their form remains the same across all subjects.
Some have equivalents or substitutes for past tense (e.g., have to → had to, can → could).
The Functions of Modals
Must and have to
Must is used for all persons in the present and the future tenses.
The negative is must not (mustn’t).
The interrogative form is must I?
Must has no infinitive and no past tense. It is followed by the infinitive without ”to’.
(i) Must is used to express obligation:
You must obey your parents.
You must go to school in time.
(ii) It is used to express compulsion, e.g. ordering someone to do something because it is necessary or important to do so:
You must answer all questions.
You must return by the evening.
(iii) It is used for saying that something is probably true because nothing else seems possible:
You must be tired after your long journey (inference).
There must be some mistakes.
(iv) The negative form of must (must not) is used for prohibition:
You must not come here.
You must not use the office phone for private calls.
(v) It is used to give emphatic advice:
She must consult a doctor at once.
You must work hard if you want to get good marks.
Have to, like must, expresses obligation in the present while had to does so in the past. Must expresses an obligation imposed by the speaker. Have to/Had to expresses external obligations—an obligation by some authority or circumstances.
I must reach there in time (the speaker himself feels so).
You have to reach in time (ordered to do so by some external authority).
Had to is used when describing something belonging to the past.
He had to go early to catch the train.
These two verbs have the following forms:
Have to and had to have alternative negative and interrogative forms:
Have to/Had to
(i) Have to expresses obligation and necessity in the present. Had to does so in the past:
She has to look after her mother.
He had to finish his work before 5 p.m.
(ii) Have to and had to are used for giving advice:
First you have to mix the water and the sugar.
She had to take those pills to get better.
(iii) Have to and had to are used to draw a logical conclusion:
There has to be some reason for his mischief.
This has to be a part of the whole plan.
(iv) Have to is used for supposition or to describe something based on possible ideas or situations:
You will have to work very hard to stand first.
If she has to choose, she won’t marry him.
(v) Have to is used to indicate that something is very important or necessary:
We have to be more careful in future.
They will have to clear all their debts before December.
Should
(i) Should is the past tense of shall. In indirect form of speech ‘shall’ changes into should:
I said, “I shall go to school tomorrow.”
I said that I should go to school the next day.
(ii) Should is used to express obligation, duty, etc.
You should look after your old parents.
You should pay all your taxes.
(iii) Should is used to give advice or suggestion:
You should consult a doctor.
She should do yoga exercises daily.
He should learn English if he wants to get a good job.
(iv) Should is used to express purpose:
Mohan walked fast so that he should catch the train.
Satish worked hard so that he should stand first in the class.
(v) Should is used to state imaginary results:
He should get angry if he comes to know about it.
(vi) Should is used to express polite requests:
I should be thankful if you give me some money.
Need
As a modal verb, need is usually followed by an infinitive without ‘to’:
The modal verb need is mainly used in questions and negatives, which are formed without ‘do’:
Need I go now? You need not go.
The negative need not is often shortened to needn’t in conversation and informal writing. Need does not change its form, so the third person singular of the present tense does not end in’ —s’:
He need not go there.
The modal verb need has no past tense. But it can be used in the pattern followed by a past participle:
Need not have/needn’t have.
You needn’t have waited for me.
The negative and interrogative forms of the past tense are:
Did not (didn’t) need and did I need?
In the present and future tenses, the negative and interrogative can be formed in either of the two ways:
(i) The negative need expresses absence of obligation:
They need not send the letter now.
You need not go. (i.e., It is not necessary for you to go).
He need not come now.
(ii) Need is used to express obligation or necessity:
Need I attend the class today?
Need he solve all the sums?
(iii) Need not + perfect infinitive is used to express an unnecessary action which was performed:
You needn’t have gone to see the doctor. He was on leave today.
You needn’t have carried an umbrella as it was not raining.
Ought
(i) Ought is usually followed by ‘to’ and an infinitive:
You ought to tell the truth.
(ii) It does not change its form so that the third person singular form does not end in ‘-s’:
She ought to work a little harder.
It can be used as a present, past, or future tense.
(iii) The negative is ought not (oughtn’t) and the interrogative is ought I?, Ought you?, Ought he?, etc:
Ought I to do it at once?
He ought not to disobey his teachers.
(iv) Ought to is used for expressing what is the right or sensible thing to do, or the right way to behave:
You ought to get up earlier.
We ought to exercise daily.
Teachers ought not to smoke before students.
(v) Ought to is used when we believe strongly or expect that something will happen:
The Indian team ought to win.
Satish ought to pass.
The meeting ought to have finished by 2 o’clock.
(vi) Ought to see/hear/meet, is used for emphasising how good, impressive or unusual something or someone is:
You ought to see their new house.
You ought to meet his elder brother.
(vii) Ought to have is used when we realise that we did not do the right thing in the past:
You ought to have listened to my advice.
She ought to have taken the money.
Ought, must, have to, and should
Ought can be used in exactly the same way as should:
You ought to/should obey your parents.
Note: Ought is used to express the subject’s obligation or duty. But it indicates neither the speaker’s authority as with must, nor an outside authority as with have to. The speaker is only reminding the subject of his duty. Besides this, he is giving advice or indicating a correct or sensible action.
Have to and must
You have to be regular. (These are the rules.)
You must obey your teachers. (The speaker insists on it.)
You have to take this medicine. (The doctor insists on it.)
You must take this medicine. (The speaker insists on it or It is the speaker’s emphatic advice.)
You mustn’t drink this, it is poison. (prohibition)
You ought not to smoke so much. (It is not right or sensible.)
Examples of Modal Verbs
Let us look at some examples of modal verbs used as auxiliary verbs and their functions:
Try yourself:
Which modal verb is used to express obligation imposed by the speaker?
Writing on a particular topic assists students in articulating their thoughts, demonstrating creativity, and conveying ideas in a clear and comprehensible manner.
To improve writing skills, students should participate in various activities from an early age, including composing articles, messages, and letters. Regular practice is crucial for development.
Writing a page or two daily—whether about personal experiences or new information—can significantly contribute to refining writing capabilities.
Objectives of Writing
Evaluate students’ proficiency in using verbal input for coherent writing and assess their grammatical accuracy.
Assess students’ ability to present ideas concisely and coherently.
Evaluate their skill in writing clear descriptions focused on the main topic.
Assist in developing ideas around a given topic, including a structured introduction and conclusion.
Ensure appropriate style and format in elaborating ideas.
Evaluate argumentative and analytical capabilities.
Evaluation Criteria
Emphasis on clarity, fluency, and grammatical correctness of expressed ideas.
Coherence in planning, organizing, and presenting ideas with proper introductions, developments, and summaries.
Skills in comparing and contrasting ideas and drawing conclusions.
Ability to present arguments with supporting examples using suitable styles and formats.
Capacity to expand notes into comprehensive writings expressed creatively in appropriate styles and language.
Use of vocabulary, grammar, punctuation, and spelling.
Ways to Practice Writing
Regular writing to improve skills.
Engaging in various writing formats to gain diverse experience.
Seeking feedback to enhance writing quality.
LettersLetters are an important means of communication between individuals and organizations. While methods like SMS, social messaging apps, and emails have become popular and often replace letters, they still hold significance. Letters foster strong relationships and can be kept as mementos or records. There are two types of letter :
1. Formal Letter 2. Informal Letter
Formal Letters
Formal letters are generally written to a higher authority like an official, or to the editor of a newspaper or magazine. The language and format are of utmost importance in writing formal letters. For students, letter writing has long term purposes. The students learn how to formally write a letter, and in what language and format should he/she present his/ her ideas/views. Here’s what to include:
From: This section should include the name provided in the question. If no name is given, students can use ‘ABC’ or ‘XYZ.’ It should also include the date and address, which can be fictitious or as specified.
To: This should be directed to a higher authority or official. For instance, if a student is writing to a teacher or principal, a specific format must be followed, varying based on the letter’s purpose, such as a complaint or inquiry.
Subject: This line should clearly indicate the letter’s main purpose, such as ‘Request for,’ ‘Complaint about,’ or ‘Order for.’
Salutation: This is how the recipient is addressed, for example, ‘Respected Sir,’ ‘Dear Sir,’ or ‘Madam.’
The Body: This is the main content of the letter, which may consist of two or three paragraphs. The opening should briefly state the letter’s purpose, using phrases like ‘I write this letter to…’ or ‘This is to bring to your notice…’. The second paragraph should elaborate on the main topic, and if it’s an order, a list of items with their quantities should be included. The concluding paragraph should prompt action from the recipient, such as ‘I hope…’ or ‘I request you…’.
Subscription: This is how the letter is signed off. In formal letters, use phrases like ‘Yours truly,’ ‘Yours sincerely,’ or ‘Yours obediently,’ followed by the writer’s signature. In some cases, it’s also appropriate to add ‘Thanking you’ before the signature.
Informal Letters
These letters are written to someone close to you. It may be your kith and kin or a friend to whom you like to share your joy/sorrow about an event that happened to you or to the person to whom the letter is addressed. The language in these letters is informal and in fact conversational.
Address: Start the letter with your address, then write the date. You can leave out the subject line, but include it if it helps explain what the letter is about.
Salutation: Always begin with “Dear…” followed by the person’s name.
The Body: Begin by asking how the person is doing, like saying “How are you?” or “I hope you’re well.” After that, get to the main point, whether you’re congratulating them or offering condolences. Adding a personal touch at the end, like “Please send my regards to…” makes the letter feel warmer.
Subscription: Close the letter with phrases like “yours lovingly,” “Your loving son,” or “Your dearest friend,” and then write your name.
Diary
A diary is simply a record of the daily events in your life. Instead of writing in a dull way, diary entries can be made more interesting by adding a good style, a bit of humour, and personal opinions when needed. Unlike other types of writing, a diary does not need a specific topic; it just requires you to express your thoughts and feelings about what happened that day.
Steps to follow :
Begin the entry with a general introduction, describing the day or momentary feelings.
In the body, you may discuss an event of the day that inspired or influenced you.
Conclude with a final remark.
Article Writing
Writing an article can be challenging as it demands creativity , a strong vocabulary, subject knowledge, and the ability to organize thoughts. An article is a type of non-fiction writing focused on a particular topic. Besides presentation skills, students need basic knowledge about the subject they are writing on. They might also need to incorporate facts along with their personal opinions. Unlike diary entries, article writing is generally objective , relying more on information gathered from various sources rather than individual experiences.
Debate
A debate is a formal discussion or argument about a specific topic where participants hold differing views. The primary objective of a debate is to evaluate the skills and ability to present an argument effectively. When writing a debate, one must take either a supportive or opposing stance on the issue at hand, meaning you are either for or against the topic mentioned in the question. It’s crucial to maintain a strong position to back up your views effectively.
Importance of Critical Thinking
Debates require students to think critically and understand how to present arguments from both sides. For example, if asked to debate whether “computers are a boon or a bane,” a student should be able to argue that computers are a “boon” while also understanding their potential drawbacks.
Knowing both sides of the argument allows for a more assertive and convincing debate.
Engaging the Audience
When presenting a debate, it’s essential to imagine addressing an audience. Starting with phrases like “I am here to put forth…” or “I am here to argue that…” helps engage the listeners.
Incorporating opposing views in the main part of the debate strengthens the argument and demonstrates a well-rounded understanding of the topic.
Speech
A speech is typically crafted to share ideas with the public. When writing a speech, it’s important to start in a way that reflects how it will be delivered. Addressing the audience is crucial; for a student’s speech, beginning with “Respected…” is suitable. Since most speeches are formal, choosing words carefully when addressing the audience is essential.
After the greeting, the purpose of the speech should be introduced with phrases like “I am here to speak…” or “Let me first introduce…”. The main content should express thoughts clearly in straightforward language, focusing on the central topic.
Short Story
Writing a short story requires a strong imagination. It becomes easier if you have clues like hints, a starting point, or a specific topic. Without these, it can be challenging to come up with a creative idea. For some, storytelling is a natural talent, while others find inspiration from their surroundings or by reading various stories.
To make a short story engaging, you might start in the middle of an action with lines like “I never expected that…”, “Finally, I got the…”, or “The news was a shock…”. Other narrative styles could include beginnings like “The other day, I happened to see…” or “That man whom I used to find near the bus stand…”. For students writing a story with a provided beginning or ending, the best approach is to jot down hints such as characters and situations before weaving them into a complete narrative.
Hint-expansion can simplify story writing since the hints outline the plot, allowing students to create connecting sentences. Observing events around you and using them as inspiration can help improve storytelling skills, which develop with practice.
Tips and Tricks for Writing
Start with an engaging introduction—this could include a catchy title or an interesting quote if it’s an article, or an introduction for a debate or speech.
Brush up on your grammar skills and keep new words handy for use when possible.
Use clear and simple language, ensuring that your sentences are grammatically correct.
Keep sentences short and precise to effectively convey your ideas. Long sentences can be confusing and may lose the reader’s interest.
Use figurative language sparingly to enhance the richness of your writing.
Stay focused on the topic you are writing about.
If possible, jot down your points as hints first, which you can refine before writing your main piece.
Ending with a cliffhanger can make your writing more impactful, perhaps by posing a thought-provoking question or leaving the reader contemplating your topic.
Finally, practice daily to develop strong writing skills naturally.
All of us read newspapers. Sometimes an item of news or an article evokes a strong feeling or reaction in us, and we want to express it through the newspaper. Then we write a letter to the newspaper which is called Letter to the Editor. All letters meant to be published in a newspaper are addressed to the Editor of that paper. The proper form of salutation in such letters is Sir (not Dear Sir) and the complimentary close should be Yours truly. Below are given some examples of Letters to the Editor.
(1) Alarming Unhygienic Conditions Of Your City
Write a letter to the Editor, Hindustan Times, Surat, registering your protest against government / local body’s apathy towards cleanliness in the city during the days of reported outbreak of cholera in the city and migration of people to other cities. Look at the picture below and write your letter.
Ans.
To The Editor Hindustan Times Surat
Date: 10th July 20_ _
Subject: Protest Against Apathy Towards Cleanliness During Cholera Outbreak
Sir/Madam,
Through the columns of your esteemed newspaper, I wish to express my strong protest and deep concern regarding the negligence shown by the government and local authorities in maintaining cleanliness across Surat, especially during the recent cholera outbreak.
It is disheartening to witness heaps of garbage left unattended, overflowing drains, and stagnant water collecting in residential areas. These unhygienic conditions have not only worsened the outbreak but also led to panic and distress among citizens. As a result, many families are migrating to other cities in search of safety and better living conditions.
Despite repeated complaints and reports, there has been little to no action from the responsible bodies. The public health system appears unprepared and indifferent, and this lack of urgency in addressing the issue is both shocking and dangerous.
I strongly urge the concerned authorities to take immediate action: clean the garbage dumps, fumigate affected areas, repair drainage systems, and run awareness campaigns about sanitation and cholera prevention.
Your newspaper has always been a voice for the people. I hope this letter will draw attention to this pressing issue and prompt authorities to act before the situation worsens further.
Yours sincerely, [Your Full Name] [Your Address] [Your Contact Number]
(2) About Improvement In Teaching Of English
Write a letter to the Editor of a newspaper, stressing the need for qualitative improvement in the teaching of English, in view of its significantly increasing role and importance.
Ans.
To The Editor The Times of India New Delhi
Date: 10th July 2025
Subject: Need for Qualitative Improvement in the Teaching of English
Sir/Madam,
Through the columns of your widely read newspaper, I wish to draw the attention of educators and authorities towards the urgent need for qualitative improvement in the teaching of English in our schools and colleges.
In today’s globalized world, English has emerged as a vital tool of communication, academic growth, and professional success. Proficiency in English opens doors to international education, employment, and digital resources. However, despite its increasing importance, the quality of English teaching in many institutions remains inadequate and outdated.
The focus is often on rote learning and grammar drills, while communication skills, vocabulary development, and practical usage are neglected. Students lack confidence in speaking and writing effectively in English, which limits their academic and career opportunities.
To address this, there is a pressing need to upgrade teaching methods. Teachers should be trained in modern, interactive techniques that emphasize listening, speaking, reading, and writing (LSRW) skills. Use of multimedia tools, exposure to English literature, and real-life communication exercises can make learning more engaging and effective.
It is time for education boards, schools, and the government to acknowledge the critical role English plays in shaping the future of our youth and take meaningful steps to ensure its proper teaching.
Yours sincerely, [Your Full Name] [Your Address] [Your Contact Information]
(3) Beggar Turns Out A Robber
Amit Khosla is a resident of Gandhi Nagar Colony. After reading the following report in a local newspaper, he writes to the Editor of the newspaper, ‘Daily Reporter’ pointing out the problem of begging. Write this letter, using your own ideas.
Ans.
12 Gandhi Nagar Colony New Delhi 16 May 20_ _ The Editor Daily Reporter New Delhi Subject: Problem of Begging Sir I have read a report in your newspaper dated 15 May, 20 regarding a case of burglary committed by a ‘beggar’. I am writing to express my views on this problem of beggars. Beggars have become a great nuisance these days. They pester people for alms in trains, buses, bazaars and streets. They are handicapped. They are unable to earn their living. But the pity is that most of the beggars are able-bodied. Begging has become a profession with them. They find it the easiest way to earn their living. Some of them are criminals. They beg only to conceal their crimes. I think begging in public places should be made a punishable offence. The government should open asylums for those beggars who are really helpless. Able-bodied beggars should be forced to work. If they go without work, they must also go without food. We should have no sympathy for such impostors. We should not encourage them by giving alms. People can thus play a big role in eradicating this evil. Also the members of every family, especially the old people and women folk, should be warned against the strangers trying to gain entry into the houses. The people coming in the garb of beggars should be treated with well-deserved suspicion and caution. Yours truly Amit Khosla
(4) Consequences Of Sedentary Lifestyle
You are Arpita or Ashwin. You came across the following extract in a magazine article. After reading this article, you realized that awareness has to be created among people on the need for health care and the consequences of a sedentary lifestyle. Taking ideas from the unit, ‘’Health and Medicine’’, along with your own ideas, write a letter to the Editor of a daily.
Ans. 115 Arjun Nagar Movayya Lucknow 8 August 20_ _ The Editor The UP Times Lucknow Subject : Consequences of Sedentary Lifestyle Sir We are living in the machine age. We have made machines our slaves. We make machines do all the work for us. We don’t have to use our legs. There are machines to carry us. We don’t have to use our hands. There are machines to work for us. We have just to sit and press the remote-control buttons. Thus our lifestyle has become altogether sedentary. Whatever we eat adds to our weight because we don’t take proper exercise to digest it and convert it into energy. Adding to one’s weight means inviting such diseases as diabetes and heart problems. The kind of food we eat further adds to the problem. We have taken to fast foods and junk foods. They are not balanced foods. They create a deficiency of essential vitamins and minerals in our body. Thus there is an urgent need that awareness should be created among the people on the need of health care. They should be educated about the consequences of sedentary lifestyle and motivated to take regular exercise. Public parks should be provided where people can have their morning or evening walk and also take some light exercise. There should be health programmes on TV and radio to tell people how they can live a healthy and long life. Without good health, we all will become a nation of underachievers. Yours truly Arpita
(5) Problem Of Global Warming
Write a letter to the Editor of ‘The Times’, showing concern on the problem of Global Warming. Give reasons for the increase in global temperature and suggest means to curb it.
Ans. 1820 Civil Lines ABC City 17 January 20_ _ The Editor The Times New Delhi Subject:Problem of Global Warming Sir During the last decade, it has been observed that the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere has increased alarmingly. A significant property of carbon dioxide is that, like glass, it allows more heat to pass into the earth’s atmosphere than to pass out. And since the carbon dioxide content in the air is increasing sharply, the earth’s atmosphere is becoming hotter and hotter. This is what is called global warming. Because of this global warming, the polar ice caps have started melting and the level of seas is rising gradually. If all this goes on unchecked and all the polar ice caps melt down into the seas, there will be such a deluge that only high peaks of mountains would be left peeping out of the waters. The presence of too much carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is harmful for our health also. The government must take urgent and stringent steps to stop the excessive flow of carbon dioxide into the air. A general awareness in this regard has also to be developed, if we want human beings to continue living on this beautiful planet of ours. Yours truly Nalin
(6) Growing Crime Of Child Abuse
Deepika Lal sees the poster given below on child abuse. She decides to write to the Editor of a local newspaper, voicing her concern about the growing crime. Write the letter for Deepika.
Ans. 66-Model Town Ghaziabad 18 March 20_ _ The Editor Lok Jagaran Ghaziabad Subject: Concern about the growing crime
Sir In most human families, children are loved and well cared for. But sometimes, they are very badly treated by adults, even by those who are directly responsible for them. The most serious problems arise when children are maltreated by their parents or close relatives. Such cases of abuse may not be noticed by the people outside the home until it is too late. Abuse can take a number of forms. A child may be beaten, burned, terrorized or forced to accept a series of humiliating ‘punishments’. Or a child may be neglected — left alone for days in a locked room or left unfed and unwashed. The worst form of child abuse is sexual abuse. The victim has to undergo a trauma that can end in serious results. This last form of child abuse is the most common these days. The problem is made more difficult by the fact that many cases are never reported. Though there are laws against child abuse, the law can take its course only when a case is reported. And even if it is reported, the harm that has been done to the child can’t be undone. Its bitter memory leaves an indelible impression on the young mind. It is like trampling a flower before it has blossomed. Yours truly Deepika Lal
(7) The Plight Of Slum Dwellers
The fact that many of the young children of today live and grow up in unhygienic surroundings, are ill-nourished and illiterate, upsets you. You write a letter to a newspaper Editor on the problems faced by them and suggest ways of rehabilitating them so that they can have a better future. Taking ideas from the picture, along with your own ideas, write the letter.
Ans.
To The Editor The Hindu New Delhi
Date: 10th July 2025
Subject: Urgent Need to Rehabilitate Underprivileged Children for a Better Future
Sir/Madam,
Through the columns of your esteemed newspaper, I wish to express my deep concern over the alarming condition of many young children in our country who are forced to live and grow up in unhygienic surroundings, without proper nutrition, education, or healthcare.
It is heartbreaking to see children begging on streets, working in hazardous conditions, or simply wandering without guidance or support. Most of them are victims of poverty, homelessness, or broken families. They remain malnourished, illiterate, and highly vulnerable to exploitation. Their dreams and potential fade away before they even get a chance to blossom.
The government and society must act urgently and collectively to rehabilitate these children. Some suggestions are:
Establish more shelter homes with basic amenities and safety.
Provide free and compulsory education with mid-day meals to combat illiteracy and malnutrition.
Set up mobile schools and health camps in slum areas and construction sites.
Enforce laws strictly against child labour and child trafficking.
Encourage NGOs and citizens to participate in child welfare drives.
If we truly wish to build a strong and inclusive nation, we cannot ignore the plight of these innocent souls. Let us give them the care, opportunity, and dignity they deserve.
Yours sincerely, [Your Full Name] [Your Address]
(8) Cruelty To Animals
Neha Bhasin is an active member of the Youth Wing of the SPCA (Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals). She saw the following scene on one of the roads. She decided to write a letter to the Editor of a newspaper, protesting against cruelty to animals. Using the information in the picture, together with your own ideas, write the letter.
Ans.
To The Editor The Times of India New Delhi
Date: 10th July 2025
Subject: Protest Against Growing Cruelty to Animals
Sir/Madam,
Through the columns of your respected newspaper, I wish to raise my voice against the growing incidents of cruelty towards animals, which continue to go unnoticed and unpunished. As an active member of the Youth Wing of SPCA, I recently witnessed a disturbing scene on a city road where a stray dog was being mercilessly beaten, and a bull was overloaded with goods and whipped repeatedly to move faster.
Such acts are not only inhumane but also a violation of the Animal Welfare Act. Animals, like humans, have the right to live with dignity and without suffering. Unfortunately, many people treat them as objects of use or nuisance rather than as living beings capable of pain and fear.
It is high time we, as a society, become more compassionate and responsible. I strongly urge the authorities and public alike to:
Enforce stricter laws against cruelty to animals and ensure strict punishment for offenders.
Create awareness through campaigns and school programs about kindness to animals.
Encourage adoption of stray animals and support for animal shelters.
Install CCTV cameras in areas known for such abuses to monitor and deter offenders.
I sincerely hope your newspaper will highlight this issue and influence public opinion and policy in favour of voiceless animals. A civilized society must be judged not only by how it treats its people but also by how it treats its animals.
Write a letter to the Editor of a local newspaper, expressing your views on the lack of job opportunities and the need of counselling to the youth after class X. You may refer to the unit, ‘Education’.
Ans. 123 Parika Street Delhi 20 June 20 The Editor Jaago Bharat New Delhi Subject : Lack of Job Opportunities and Proper Counselling after Class X Sir It is very unfortunate that no guidance or counselling is available to students after they have passed their 10th class examination. A large number of students pass the Class X examination every year. But there is hardly any organization or institution to counsel them about higher studies or any job opportunities that are open to them. The result is that they plunge into traditional courses in arts or sciences. They come out with degrees and diplomas that can serve them no more than useless pieces of paper. It results in so much wastage of time, money and energy. Out of frustration, some of the youth then take to undesirable activities. So it is very important that sufficient guidance should be made available in all educational institutions, especially in all high schools. It will help the students to know from the very beginning what courses of study they should opt for, or what profession they should adopt in their life. Yours truly Ved Prakash
(10) Lack Of Proper Sanitation And Hygiene
India is a highly populated country. People lack in maintaining proper sanitation and hygiene. As a result, they suffer from various diseases. India has a serious sanitation challenge; around 60 per cent of the world’s open defecation takes place in India. Poor sanitation causes health hazards including diarrheoa, particularly in children under 5 years of age, malnutrition and deficiencies in physical development and cognitive ability. You are Nitish / Nikita, head boy / girl of Anand Public School, Jaipur. Write a letter to the editor of a national daily, highlighting the problem and suggesting practical ways to ensure public sanitation and the right to dignity and privacy (Sample Paper 2018-19)
Ans. Anand Public School Jaipur 20 July 20_ _ The Editor Hindustan Times New Delhi Subject : Poor Maintenance of Proper Sanitation and Hygiene Sir India is facing a grave sanitation challenge. Millions of people go for relieving themselves in the open. India accounts for about sixty per cent of the world’s open defecation. Here people, especially rural people, lack the knowledge of proper sanitation and hygiene. They consequently fall a victim to a number of diseases. This lack of knowledge of hygiene and sanitation poses several health hazards, viz diarrhoea (especially in children below five years), malnutrition, physical development problems and cognitive ability. The health authorities should ensure that the people should be made aware about the Swachh Bharat Abhiyaan and should be told about the importance of proper sanitation and hygiene and the right to dignity and privacy. For this, the services of the media can be utilised. People should be encouraged to avail themselves of the free toilet scheme being offered by the Government of India. Yours truly Nikita Bhandari (Head Girl)
Often we have to write letters to various public and government officers to draw their attention to our civic and other problems. For example, we write to the Health Officer about the problem of insanitation, to the Postmaster about the unsatisfactory delivery of our letters, to the Police Department about the law and order problems, and so on. Such letters are called official letters, and they must be very polite and respectful in their tone and language. They are usually addressed to the Heads of the concerned departments.
(1) Complaint About Increasing Thefts You are Tarun Jain of 15, Nehru Park, Karnal. Write a letter to the Police Commissioner, complaining about the increasing number of thefts in your area. (2016) Ans. 15 Nehru Park Karnal 7 April 20_ _
The Police Commissioner Karnal
Subject: Increasing Incidents of Thefts in Nehru Park Area
Respected Sir
Recently there has been an alarming increase in the number of thefts in Nehru Park area of the city. Hardly a day passes when there is no theft or burglary. Cases are regularly reported to the nearest Police Divisions but no headway has so far been made in apprehending the culprits. To be quite frank, people have started doubting that the policemen are mixed up with these thefts and burglaries. Though it is a wild charge, the fact remains that the culprits always go scot-free. There is a danger to the life of the residents also since the burglars come armed with knives and pistols. It is requested that night patrolling in this area should be intensified and all-out efforts should be made to nab the culprits.
Yours faithfully Tarun Jain
(2) Insanitary Condition Of The Locality The insanitary condition has made life in your locality miserable. Write a letter to the Sanitary Inspector of your M.C., requesting him to take the necessary steps before it is too late. Ans. 775 Jahangir Puri Panipat
14 Nov. 20_ _ The Sanitary Inspector Municipal Corporation Panipat
Subject : Insanitary Condition of Jahangir Puri
Sir
I beg to draw your attention to the insanitary condition of the Jahangir Puri area of this city. Mainly poor people live in this area. There are very few proper drains here. The drains are not cleaned regularly. These are never flushed with water. No dustbins have been provided. People throw all their refuse here and there. Flies and mosquitoes buzz about. All this gives this area a very dirty look. I hope you will take suitable measures to improve the sanitary condition of this area.
Thanking you Yours faithfully Harish
(3) Enquiries About Course In Spoken English You are PQR. You saw an advertisement in a newspaper about a course in Spoken English, conducted by ‘A to Z in English’, 22, Gandhi Nagar, Chennai. You wish to join the course. Write a letter to the advertiser, inquiring about all the details that you require. Ans. 43 King’s Street Dream City 18 June 20_ _
The Director A to Z in English 22 Gandhi Nagar Chennai.
Subject : Inquiring about all the details of Course
Dear Sir I have read your advertisement in the New India Times dated 17 June, 20_ _ , regarding a course in Spoken English. I am willing to join this course, but before that I would like to know the following details with respect to this course : 1.The duration of the course. 2.The day and date on which you intend to begin this course. 3.The timings of the lessons. 4.The different ingredients of the course — viz. lectures, discussions, audio-visual aids, etc. 5.Approximate number of participants in each group. 6.The schedule of fees to be paid. Please supply me all the above details so that I can make up my mind about joining this course, which I would very much like to.
Yours faithfully PQR
(4) Enquiries About Course In Leadership Your sister has just passed the All India Secondary School Examination of CBSE. She is keen on joining some institute which may help her in her personality development. She consults her language teacher on the subject who advises her to join ‘The Centre for Creativity and Development’ for this purpose. Write a letter to the Director of the Centre, seeking necessary information about her admission to their 8-week summer course in leadership. Ans. 416 The Mall New Delhi 20 December 20 __
The Director The Centre for Creativity and Development Teen Murti New Delhi
Subject : Your 8-Week Summer Course in Leadership
Dear Sir
I have gone through your advertisement on the above course in the ‘Hindustan Times’ of 18 December. My sister has just passed the All India Secondary School Examination of CBSE. She is keen on joining some institute which may help her in her personality development. She consulted her language teacher on the subject who advised her to join your centre for this purpose. Please let me have the following information about this course : 1. The charges for the course. 2. Whether to be paid in lump sum or in instalments. 3. Timings of the classes. 4. Whether a diploma or a certificate is issued. 5.Whether there is still time to join the course this year. 6.Whether the course is residential. A self-addressed and duly stamped envelope is enclosed for the reply.
Thanking you Yours faithfully Naveen Chaudhri
(5) Enquiries About TOEFL Course You are PQR. You saw an advertisement in a newspaper regarding a course for training and preparing students for the TOEFL — Test of English as a Foreign Language. You wish to join the course. Write a letter to the Course Director of ‘A to Z in English’, 22, Gandhi Nagar, Chennai-20, inquiring about all the details that you require. Ans. 147 Maharani Lane Mysore-18 17 April 20_ _
The Course Director A to Z in English 22 Gandhi Nagar Chennai-20__
Respected Sir
I have seen an advertisement in the local newspaper regarding a course that you are running to train and prepare students for the TOEFL (Test of English as a Foreign Language). I want to join this course since I have to clear this Test before I can apply for a student visa to the USA. Could you please furnish me the following details so as to help me make up my mind about joining this course ? 1. The day and date when the course begins. 2. Duration of the course. 3. Daily timings of the classes. 4. The staff, their qualifications and experience. 5. The amount and schedule of fees to be paid. 6. Certificates on the successful completion of the course, if any. 7. Course recognised by a Board / University or not? Please supply me the above-mentioned details at your earliest and help me make up my mind.
Yours sincerely PQR
(6) Complaint About Poor Police Patrolling
Write a letter to the Superintendent of Police of your district, complaining about poor patrolling by the police in your area, resulting in petty crimes. Sign yourself as ABC. Ans. 16 Railway Road Kurukshetra 30 March 20_ _ The Superintendent of Police Kurukshetra
Subject: Crimes Due to Poor Police Patrolling
Respected Sir
It pains me to bring to your kind notice the poor patrolling by the police in this area. I think there is nobody to check whether the policemen on duty are doing their job honestly. Two or three policemen are often seen in the early hours of the night. They move about here and there with long sticks in their hands. They harass the labourers going back home after their day’s work. They extort money from them on one pretext or the other. This so-called patrolling party disappears after about 10 p.m. There is no night watchman also in this area. The thieves and burglars have a free time to enter any house they choose. Hardly a day passes when there is no case of theft. Sir, I request you to put some honest policemen on patrol duty in this area. All the residents shall feel obliged to you.
Yours faithfully ABC
(7) Placing an OrderYou are the owner of Jatin & Brothers Ltd. You have received a lot of orders from various customers. Write a letter to one of the customers informing them about delay in fulfillment of their order in less than 150 words. Ans. Jatin & Brothers Ltd. Lajpat Nagar New Delhi- 110045 14 January 2025
To The Manager Krishna Production Jaipur, Rajasthan- 450008
Subject- Regarding delay in order
Sir
We hereby write to inform you that your order no. 582/JPL which was due for delivery on 12 March 2021 would be late by a few days. Due to the peak season, we have received orders in bulk. Some of these are urgent and need to be completed without any delay. With reference to our previous conversation, we think you will not have a problem with the delay since you do not have an urgency. We will update you regarding the confirmed date of delivery soon, however, I assure you that it will be delivered to you before 20 March 2021. We apologise for the inconvenience caused. Looking forward to your cooperation.
Thanking you Yours truly Jatin Sharma
(8) Cancelling an OrderYou are in-charge of purchase for Turbo Automobiles Ltd. Last week you made an order which is still pending. Write a letter to the manager of ‘Tools & Spares’ for the cancellation of the aforementioned order in less than 150 words.
Ans.
Turbo Automobiles Ltd. Pahar Ganj, Central Delhi Delhi- 110055
3 January 2025
To The Manager Tools & Spares Delhi- 110065
Subject- Cancellation of order no. TS/948 dated 6 September 2020
Sir
I want to draw your attention to an order made with you on 6 February 2020 w.r.t order number TS/948. I hereby make a kind request to cancel this order.
Our company had undertaken a project for which this order was made. However, we are no longer doing the project and hence we do not require the items that we ordered from you. Since the order cancellation request is made within 10 days of the order placement, it is in compliance with your firm policies. No payment had been made and thus, there are no outstanding balances and the accounts stand clear.
Please confirm the cancellation of the order at the earliest. I shall make the cancellation payment after cancellation is confirmed. I have enclosed a copy of the original order receipt.
Thanking you Yours faithfully Sarvesh Purchase in-charge
